• Application to non-native English speakers: Oral reading accuracy and speed may be complicated by interference from the native language and may not indicate actual reading skill in the native language or in English.

Vocabulary refers to the words that a person understands and knows the meaning. Vocabulary knowledge is critical to the comprehension processes of a skilled reader.

• Application to native English speakers: Vocabulary building activities often build on themes such as family, the community, or the workplace. Learners are encouraged to determine the meanings of words from context. Learners often define words or choose the correct meanings of words among several choices.
• Application to non-native English speakers: Adults learning English may not have the background knowledge they need to work effectively with the themes usually used in U. S. classes. Teachers need to use themes that learners are familiar with or give them the background information they need. Learners need to have multiple exposures to specific words in different contexts and know how to use English and bilingual dictionaries (Folse, 2004). They need explicit instruction in defining words and doing multiple choice exercises

Reading comprehension is the ability to derive meaning from a written text. Skilled readers are purposeful and active in applying comprehension strategies to texts.

• Application to native English speakers: Native English speakers have oral English and culture-specific knowledge that guides their understanding of reading texts used in U. S. classes, and they can often describe orally the strategies they use to comprehend what they read.
• Application to non-native English speakers: English language skill and cultural knowledge may impede English language learners' comprehension and ability to talk about texts. Some researchers argue that readers need to understand more than 95 percent of the words in a passage before they can effectively determine meaning from context (e.g., Qian, 1999). Non-native English speakers may use comprehension strategies in their native language that they need to be taught to use when reading English, and they may not be able to talk about the strategies that they use. Teachers need to tie readings to learners' native languages and cultures whenever possible and teach specific strategies for comprehending a passage. Teachers should preview unfamiliar ideas, vocabulary, and formats (titles, pictures, graphics, and text structure) of texts before learners read them.