For a more detailed discussion of the role of the first-language in reading development see Burt & Peyton (2003) at http://cal-org.wdi.net/caela/digests/reading.htm. For more discussion of the types of first language backgrounds described here, see Birch (2002); Hilferty (1996); Huntley (1992); and Strucker & Davidson (2003).

In many adult ESL programs, decisions about learner placement and instructional approaches are based solely on learners' oral proficiency in English. However, learners' first- language literacy should be taken into consideration as well, because it can strongly influence the types of instruction they need and the rates of progress they are likely to make (Robson, 1982; Strucker & Davidson, 2003). First-language literacy is an important factor in the following decisions:

• Assigning learners to classes. Pre-literate, non-literate, and semi-literate learners may have difficulty using writing to reinforce what they learn orally and may learn less rapidly than other learners. They may benefit from being placed in both oral ESL and English literacy classes and in different classes from literate learners. This is not always easy to do, but it is sometimes possible in larger programs.
• Designing and teaching ESL lessons. Lessons that involve conveying a lot of information through writing (e.g., on the board or in written exercises) will be harder for pre-, non-, and semi-literate learners to understand. They may need much more conversational and visual support for content and skills covered than do literate learners.
• Teaching literacy skills. Non- and low-literate learners need to be taught basic literacy skills such as sound/symbol correspondence, the relationship between written symbols and oral speech, and the directionality of writing. Those who are literate in their first language need a different focus. According to some researchers, literate learners need to know 3,000 to 5,000 words in English before they can transfer their literacy skills from their first language to English (Laufer, 1997). This is a fairly high level of English; as a result, even literate learners probably need a heavy emphasis on vocabulary building. Furthermore, the transfer of reading skills from the native language to English will not be automatic. Learners need to be shown how to use the reading skills they have in their first language to help them read in English. They will also need direct instruction in English sound/symbol correspondences and other reading strategies.