New research on motivation and second language acquisition is examining specific factors that influence motivation and learning, such as personal goals, levels of self-confidence, and features of the learning environment (Dörnyei, 2003; Noels, Clement, & Pelletier, 2003).

Opportunities for Interaction

Interaction refers to communication between individuals, particularly when they are negotiating meaning or working to prevent a breakdown in communication (Ellis, 1999). Interaction provides learners with opportunities to receive language input (through hearing the language) and feedback (when the conversational partner responds, corrects, or asks for clarification). It also allows them to make changes to their language as the conversation proceeds (Gass, 1997; Long, 1996; Pica, 1994; Swain, 1995). This allows learners to "notice the gap" between their use of the language and correct, native speaker use (Schmidt & Frota, 1986, p. 311).

Empirical research with second language learners indicates that participating in language interactions facilitates second language development. For example, a study of conversational interaction and learners' acquisition of question formation found that interaction increased their rate of acquisition (Mackey, 1999).

Research on interaction includes studies of task-based language learning and focus on form.

• The goal of an interactive task is for learners to focus together on a topic or activity and exchange meaning about it (Ellis, 1999). Most tasks are done in pairs or small groups. SLA researchers have found that carefully designed tasks give learners opportunities to use the language (in this case English) in authentic situations and in meaningful ways. They have also found that learners tend to produce longer sentences and negotiate meaning more often in interactive tasks than they do in teacher- fronted instruction, where the teacher stands at the front of the room and leads the discussion (Doughty & Pica, 1986). When designing tasks, teachers should consider the learners' language proficiency, the goals of the lesson, the language to be practiced, the skills to be learned and content areas to be covered, opportunities to give feedback to learners, and classroom logistics.
• Interactive tasks seem to be most successful when they:
  • Center on a problem that is new or unfamiliar to the participants;
  • Require learners to exchange information;
  • Have a specific outcome;
  • Involve discussion of details; and
  • Involve the use of naturally occurring conversation and narratives (Ellis, 2000).