Motivation

Dörnyei (2002a, p. 8) defines motivation as "why people decide to do something, how long they are willing to sustain the activity, [and] how hard they are going to pursue it." Studies indicate that integrative motivation (wanting to learn a language in order to identify with the community that speaks it) promotes SLA regardless of the age of the learner or whether the language is being learned as a second or a foreign language (Gardner, 1985; Masgoret & Gardner, 2003). Learners may have instrumental motivation, the desire to learn the language to meet their needs and goals, such as getting a job or talking to their children's teachers (Morris, 2001; Oxford & Shearin, 1994). Whether learners' motivation is integrative or instrumental, research indicates that teachers should learn about and respond to learners' needs and goals when planning instruction (Dörnyei & Csizer, 1998; Weddel & Van Duzer, 1997).

Teachers can help learners identify their motivations for learning English and their shortterm goals and reflect on their progress and achievements. One way to do this is by using tools like those described below:

• Self-evaluation tools such as checklists to identify their skills, strengths, and weaknesses;
• Weekly checklists to track their progress towards meeting a learning goal; and
• Reflection tools such as learning diaries to help them build autonomy and take charge of their learning (Marshall, 2002).

(See Needs Assessment and Learner Self-Evaluation, for examples of these tools and descriptions of ways they can be used.)

Recent research looks at how instructional contexts affect motivation. A learner's motivation may vary from day to day and even from task to task, and social factors (e.g., group dynamics, learning environment, and a learning partner's motivation) may affect a learner's attitude, effort, classroom behavior, and achievement (Dörnyei, 2002b). Therefore, teachers should create an environment that is conducive to learning by encouraging group cohesion in the classroom and by using varied and challenging instructional activities to help learners stay focused and engaged with instructional content (Dörnyei & Csizer, 1998). Activities that are done in pairs and small groups can provide learners with opportunities to share information and build a sense of community (Florez & Burt, 2001).

Research also suggests that teachers should create opportunities for learners to continue their language learning outside of class (Clement, Dörnyei, & Noels, 1994). Projects that are started in class and continued outside class are one way to do this. For example, a class might work together to create a book of information about community services for new families. In class they might brainstorm ideas and develop the outline for the book. Outside class, individual learners might collect information about different community agencies, write it up, and bring it to class to be compiled in the book. Projects like this one give learners opportunities to work with others to accomplish tasks and to use English in real- life situations. (See Moss & Van Duzer, 1998, Project-based Learning For Adult English Language Learners, for discussion.)