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Introduction
Digests
Journals
Books
Web Sites
Listservs
ERIC Documents
Self-directed learning occurs when learners control both the learning objectives and the means of learning. That is, learners engage in self-directed learning by making their own decisions about what and how they are going to learn (Lowry, 1989). When learners take on a self-directed learning project, they gain more than new skills or knowledge. They may also develop motivation, independence, discipline, and confidence (Abdullah, 2001).
Central tenets of self-directed learning include the following:
Before engaging in a self-directed learning project, learners should be able to answer for themselves the following important questions:
The following resources provide information on self-directed learning.
Abdullah, M. H. (2001). Self-directed learning. ERIC Digest. Bloomington, IN: ERIC Clearinghouse on Reading, English, and Communication.
Lowry, C. M. (1989). Supporting and facilitating self-directed learning. ERIC Digest. Columbus, OH: ERIC Clearinghouse on Adult, Career, and Vocational Education.
ERIC/CLL is grateful to Dr. John Means of Temple University for his valuable assistance in compiling this Resource Guide Online.
Digests are 1500- to 2000-word brief overviews of specific topics in education.
Developing
Metacognition
Language
Learning Strategies: An Update
Learning
To Learn: Preparing Teachers and Students for Problem-Based Learning
The Role of Metacognition in Second Language Teaching and Learning
Self-Directed
Learning
Self-Directed
Learning: Myths and Realities
Supporting
and Facilitating Self-Directed Learning
Computer Assisted Language Learning (CALL) is an international journal that provides a forum to discuss discoveries in the field of CALL, including computer assisted composition and translation, intelligent tutoring systems, and simulated active learning environments.
The ELT Journal
seeks to bridge the gap between the everyday practical concerns of English
language teaching (ELT) professionals and related disciplines such as
education,
linguistics, psychology, and sociology. Articles are available in full on
the Web. Recent articles about autonomy and language learning include Learner
Initiative in the Language Classroom (Vol. 56, No. 1) and Self-Assessment
in Autonomous Computer-Aided Second Language Writing (Vol. 56, No.
3).
Language Learning & Technology
is an online refereed journal that seeks to disseminate research to foreign
and second language educators in the United States and around the world
on
issues related to technology and language education. Topics include computer
assisted language learning, autonomous language learning, distance learning,
and technology and indigenous languages.
System:
An International Journal of Educational Technology and Applied Linguistics
is a quarterly journal that publishes the findings of the applications of
educational technology and applied linguistics to problems of foreign language
teaching and learning. System regularly publishes articles on self-directed
learning, including two special issues: Metacognitive Knowledge and Beliefs
in Language Learning (Vol. 27, No. 4) and Autonomy, Self-Direction and Self
Access in Language Teaching and Learning: The History of an Idea (Vol. 23,
No. 2).
Benson, P. (2001). Teaching
and researching autonomy in language learning. Essex: Pearson Education.
Benson, P., & Voller, P. (Eds.). (1997). Autonomy and independence in language learning. London: Longman.
Brookfield, S. (Ed.). (1985). Self-directed learning: From theory to practice. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Brown, H. D. (1989). A practical guide to language learning: A fifteen-week program of strategies for success. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Brown, H. D. (1991). Breaking the language barrier: Creating your own pathway to success. Yarmouth, ME: Intercultural Press.
Brown, H.D. (2002). Strategies for success: A practical guide to learning English. Des Moines, IA: Addison Wesley Longman.
Candy, P. C. (1991). Self-direction for lifelong learning. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Cohen, A. D. (1990). Language learning: Insights for learners, teachers, and researchers. Rowley, MA: Newbury.
Cohen, A. D. (1998). Strategies in learning and using a second language. London: Longman.
Dickinson, L. (1987). Self-instruction in language learning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Dufeu, B. (1994). Teaching myself. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Ellis, G., & Sinclair, B. (1989). Learning to learn English: A course in learner training. Glasgow: Cambridge University Press.
Fuller, G. E. (1987). How to learn a foreign language. New York: Storm King Press.
Gardner, D., & Miller, L. (1996). Tasks for independent language learning. Alexandria, VA: TESOL.
Hammond, M., & Collins, R. (1991). Self-directed learning: Critical practice. London: Kogan Page.
Larson, D. N., & Smalley, W. A. (1972). Becoming bilingual: A guide to language learning. Lanham, MD: University Press of America.
Lightbron, P.M., & Spada, N. (1999). How languages are learned (2nd ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Marshall, L., & Rowland, F. (1993). A guide to learning independently. Buckingham, England: Open University Press.
Piskurich, G. M. (1993). Self-directed learning: a practical guide to design, development and implementation. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Rubin, J., & Thompson, I. (1994). How to be a more successful language learner (2nd ed.). Boston: Heinle & Heinle.
Stevick, E. W. 1989. Success with foreign languages: Seven who achieved it and what worked for them. New York: Prentice Hall.
Vincent, S. (Ed.). (1999). The
multigrade classroom: A resource handbook for small, rural schools.
Book 6:
Self-directed learning. Portland, OR: Northwest Regional
Educational Laboratory.
Wenden, A. (1991). Learner strategies for learner autonomy: Planning
and implementing learner training for language learners. Cambridge:
Prentice Hall.
The AILA Scientific Commission on Learner Autonomy was established in order to develop a methodology of language learning; to stimulate further research in the area of learner strategies, self-directed learning, and self-instruction; and to encourage the development of curricula. Their Web site includes information on the commission’s current projects, a yearly newsletter, and links to autonomous learning sites.
Audio-Forum is
a publisher and distributor of self-instructional, personal development,
and
educational audiovisual materials. Their products include self-instructional
language courses in 103 languages, from Afrikaans to Zulu, and a large selection
of courses and related cultural materials for Native American languages.
They also carry many English as a second/foreign language instructional
courses.
Autonomy and Independence
in Language Learning, maintained by Phil Benson and hosted by the English
Centre of Hong Kong University, is intended to be a resource for language
teachers and researchers who are interested in autonomy and independence.
The site includes links to organizations and self-access centers and an
extensive
bibliography on autonomy.
Brigham Young University
Independent Study offers university courses in German, Hebrew, and Spanish,
and secondary education courses in American Sign Language, Mandarin Chinese,
English as
a second language, French, German, Japanese, Latin, Russian, and Spanish.
The Calico Review offers software reviews of language learning materials.
E.L. Easton Languages Online provides resources for the study of Albanian, Chinese, Croatian, English, French, German, Italian, Latin, Polish, Russian, and Spanish. Also included are links to foreign language bookstores, listservs, and search engines.
Internet Resources
for Language Teachers and Learners is a searchable collection of annotated
links useful to language teachers and learners.
LangMedia: The
Five College Foreign Language Media Archive provides country-specific
video, audio, and still images for use by language learners. Languages
featured
include Arabic, Croatian, Hindi, Japanese, Portuguese, Thai, and Urdu.
The Language
and Culture Center of the School for International Training provides
online culture and language resources, information about language learning
skills
and strategies, a guided self-instruction program, and links to resources
for individual languages.
Language E-thologies
is maintained by the Centre for Language Training (CFSL) at the Canadian
Foreign Service Institute. The Language E-thologies are links to hundreds
of Web sites
related to language learning on the Internet that provide practice in listening,
speaking, reading, and writing skills, as well as additional resources in
testing, reference tools, activities, software, and immersion.
Language Learning
in Tandem helps language learners find tandem partners to assist in
autonomous language learning. Tandem partners help each other learn their
respective
native language through e-mail, telephone, or other electronic media.
Language Learning
Net provides a language course finder as well as links to foreign language
organizations, book suppliers, and certification courses.
Language
Learning Workshop provides information on how to perform basic language
learning tasks, a set of worksheets you can print out and copy for your
own
use, a system to help you identify and solve language learning problems,
a set of learning style instruments to provide insights into how your learning
style can affect the way you go about language learning, and online books
and essays about language and culture learning.
Meetup is a free service that organizes local gatherings about varied topics. Language learners can find or create groups to meet up with local people who are interested in conversation practice, writing, reading, and discussion in many different languages.
Preparing
for Language Learning, from SIL International, offers suggestions
for self-directed language learning based on the principles of language
acquisition
and learning styles and strategies.
The Self-Directed
Learning Web Page includes a section on techniques, tools, and resources
for the self-directed learner.
Teaching
Learners to Be Self-Directed is an online reprint of an article by
Gerald Grow that appeared in Adult Education Quarterly, Vol. 41, No. 3,
Spring
1991.
The UCLA Language Materials
Project is an online database of teaching and learning materials for
less commonly taught languages throughout the world. Over 4,000 resources
covering
100 languages have been compiled on the site.
The Virtual
CALL Library offers links to Computer Assisted Language Learning (CALL)
software available for downloading.
The Learner Independence Special Interest Group of IATEFL hosts a listserv that gives participants an opportunity to share opinions and ideas on learner independence related issues.
TESOL Arabia Learner Independence Special Interest Group List aims to create a network of people interested in issues related to independent learning and to provide a forum for the exchange of ideas, expertise, knowledge, experiences, and advice.
AUTO-L is an electronic discussion forum that promotes dialogue and exchange
among language teachers and researchers involved in learner autonomy, self-directed
learning, learning strategies, learner development, learner independence,
learner training, and self-access. Requests to be subscribed to the list
or
removed from it should be sent to Anita
Wenden.
You may wish to conduct your own search of the ERIC database on the World Wide Web. If you need help with your search, call 1-800-276-9834 or email our User Services staff.
Information on obtaining the documents listed below can be found at the
end of this section or by clicking here. These documents
were identified by searching the ERIC database using the following combination
of ERIC descriptors:
Independent Study
and
Second Language Learning
ED454746
Training Learners for Self-Instruction.
Fernandez-Toro, Maria
Publication Date: 1999
ISBN: 1-902031-02-4
Available from: EDRS Price MF01/PC05 Plus Postage.
Availability: Grantham Book Services Ltd., Isaac Newton
Way, Alma Industrial Park Estate, Grantham, Lincs
NG31 8SD, England (15 British pounds). Tel: 01476-541-080; Fax: 01476-541-061.
This book presents practical solutions for teaching foreign language learners
self instruction, ranging from needs analysis to resourcing, strategy training
and monitoring tools. Special emphasis is placed on different ways in which
learners can be supported by learning how to analyze their own needs and
set
their own goals, how to choose the most effective means to reach those goals,
and how to monitor their own progress. Chapter titles include the following:
"What is a Learner Training Programme?" "Aids for Goal Setting";
"Providing Learning Resources"; "Helping Learners Monitor
Their Own Progress"; "The Learners' Response"; "Controlling
Standards"; "A Few Questions for Future Development"; "Preferences";
and "Photocopiable Appendices." The references chapter is an
annotated list of resources in print and electronic form. (Contains 31
references.)
(KFT)
ED428570
Making Sense of Autonomous Language Learning. English Centre Monograph
No. 2.
Benson, Phil; Lor, Winnie
Publication Date: 1998
Available from: EDRS Price MF01/PC03 Plus Postage.
The monograph emerged from experience with an independent learning program
at the English Centre of the University of Hong Kong. Students enrolled
in
classroom-based English spend part of their study time improving their English
in ways they have chosen themselves, with the support of self-access learning
facilities and counselors. They were asked to reflect on their experiences
and evaluate their progress. The report is presented in three parts. The
first
introduces the notion of autonomy and explores three
relevant areas of the literature: learner beliefs about language learning;
conceptions of learning; and Vygotskyan interpretations of self-direction
and inner speech. A model for analyzing learner discourse on language learning
in conceptual terms is offered. In part two, the model is applied to the
data
to analyze the conceptions of language and language learning collectively
available to the learners in the study and their readiness for autonomous
learning. The third part contains two case studies, in which these conceptions
are related to readiness for autonomy within the discourse of individual
students.
Contains 57
references. (MSE)
ED392240
Reading in a Foreign Language: A Self-Access Approach.
Blue, George
Publication Date: 1992
Available from: EDRS Price MF01/PC01 Plus Postage.
This paper demonstrates how learners can work on problems involved in learning
a foreign language on their own through reading strategies and the help
of
a well-stocked, language resources center. Using this self-access approach
and the resources center, the learner can accomplish the goal of learning
with only minimal assistance from other learners or a language learning adviser.
It is suggested that learning materials be developed for language development
as well as for reading skills development. Approaches that
have been found useful for language learning through reading and for reading
skills, in particular, are reviewed, such as extensive reading, intensive
reading, skimming, scanning, and summarizing. The impact of reading speed
on student learning is also discussed. (Contains 22 references.) (NAV)
EJ595041
Expectations and Emergent Beliefs of Self-Instructed Language Learners.
White, Cynthia
System, v27 n4 p443-57 Dec 1999
ISSN: 0346-251X
Reports findings from a longitudinal study tracking the expectations, shifts
in expectations, and emergent beliefs of novice self-instructed language
learners.
Investigates how learners experienced and articulated their experience in
a distance-learning context. Focused on learner-context interface, tolerance
for ambiguity, and locus of control. (Author/VWL)
EJ593216
Recent Publications on Autonomy in Language Learning.
Sinclair, Barbara
ELT Journal, v53 n4 p309-29 Oct 1999
ISSN: 0951-0893
This survey considers recent publications relating to autonomy in language
learning. Publications are grouped in three categories: collections of articles
about autonomy in language learning and research studies in the field; books
intended as practical guides; collections of materials or tasks intended
to
inspire practitioners of autonomy in language learning. (Author/VWL)
EJ589660
The Use of Self-Instructional Broadcast Materials for Second Language
Learning: An Investigation
in the Japanese Context.
Umino, Tae
System, v27 n3 p309-27 Sep 1999
ISSN: 0346-251X
Clarifies the nature of second-language (L2) self-instruction involving the
use of self-instructional broadcast materials, with particular reference
to
Japan, where such materials are widely used. Analysis of responses to an
open-ended questionnaire administered to 138 university students reveals
benefits and
problems associated with this mode of self-instruction (Author/VWL)
EJ589659
Autonomy and Language Learning in a Simulated Environment.
Murray, Garold L.
System, v27 n3 p295-308 Sep 1999
ISSN: 0346-251X
Computer-assisted language-learning literature points to a need for experimentation
with innovative learning structures to realize the full potential of recent
technological developments. Reports on a research project that addresses
these concerns by exploring the experiences of 23 French second-language
learners
as they worked independently with an interactive video program. (Author/VWL)
EJ577552
Metacognitive Knowledge and Language Learning.
Wenden, Anita L.
Applied Linguistics, v19 n4 p515-37 Dec 1998
ISSN: 0142-6001
Reviews theoretical and research literature on learner strategies and self-directed
language learning, particularly concerning the role of metacognitive knowledge
in learning. Argues that too little attention is given to the function of
metacognition in language learning. Practical implications for second-language
instruction are discussed. (Author/MSE)
EJ575412
Supporting Greater Autonomy in Language Learning.
Lee, Icy
ELT Journal, v52 n4 p282-90 1998
ISSN: 0951-0893
Describes the implementation of a self-directed learning program for tertiary
students in Hong Kong and evaluates its outcomes using data from the students
and the teacher. The article raises issues concerning the provision of support
for such learning and discusses the implications for future work in the
field.
(Author/JL)
EJ572001
Self-Instruction and Success: A Learner-Profile Study.
Jones, Francis R.
Applied Linguistics, v19 n3 p378-406 Sep 1998
ISSN: 0142-6001
Interviews with adults experienced in foreign language self-instruction generated
profiles of language experience at learner and self-instructed language-token
levels. Results showed separations between languages with and without self-instruction.
The most effective learning route was starting with classwork. Ab initio
self-instruction
produced low command and high dropout. Sense of success was based on self-image.
L1-L2 cognacy had little effect on achievement. (SM)
EJ555598
Language Awareness and the Autonomous Language Learner.
Little, David
Language Awareness, v6 n2&3 p93-104 1997
ISSN: 0965-8416
Presents a language-awareness (LA) perspective on the concept of autonomy
in second-language learning. The article distinguishes between two kinds
of
LA, examines child development and the role played by metalinguistic knowledge
and literacy in first-language acquisition and examines the role played
by
both kinds of LA in second-language pedagogy. (19 references) (Author/CK)
EJ539283
"Autonomy": An Anatomy and a Framework.
Littlewood, William
System, v24 n4 p427-35 Dec 1996
ISSN: 0346-251X
Examines the components constituting autonomy in second language learning.
The article focuses on helping students make and execute choices in the
domains
of communication, learning, and their personal life. These components form
the basis of a conceptual framework for coordinating strategies to help
learners
develop autonomy. (24 references) (Author/CK)
EJ532618
Self-Directed Learning Contracts to Individualize Language Learning in the
Classroom.
McGarrell, Hedy M.
Foreign Language Annals, v29 n3 p495-508 Aut 1996
ISSN: 0015-718X
Discusses the form and use of learning contracts in second- language teaching
and learning. It is suggested that learning contracts are an ideal means
to
offer language learners greater opportunities to work toward, and achieve,
individual goals. (Author/JL)
EJ508446
Enhancing Metacognition in Self-Directed Language Learning.
Victori, Mia; Lockhart, Walter
System, v23 n2 p223-34 May 1995
ISSN: 0346-251X
Highlights the unifying role of metacognition in all levels of learner training.
The article argues that one of the premises of any self-directed program
should
be that of enhancing students' metacognition to prepare them for their own
learning autonomy. This paper describes an application of this principle
including
two examples of its use by counselors. (30 references) (Author/CK)
EJ508440
Autonomy, Self-Direction, and Self Access in Language Teaching and Learning:
The History of an
Idea.
Gremmo, Marie-Jose; Riley, Philip
System, v23 n2 p151-64 May 1995
ISSN: 0346-251X
Identifies the ideas influencing the rise of autonomy and self-direction
in educational milieus. Also discussed are the background of minority rights
movements, shifts in educational philosophy, reactions against behaviorism,
and wider access to education. Research into learning strategies has contributed
directly to these changes. (73 references) (Author/CK)
EJ506800
Learning an Alien Lexicon: A Teach-Yourself Case Study.
Jones, Francis R.
Second Language Research, v11 n2 p95-111 Jun 1995
ISSN: 0267-6583
This article uses diary data to examine a British learner's self-study experience
of Hungarian, with reference to lexis. From this learner's experience, it
is suggested that building a working lexicon is the single most important
task facing the learner. (40 references) (MDM)
EJ485130
The Sound of One Hand Clapping: How to Succeed in Independent Language Learning.
Rowsell, Lorna V.; Libben, Gary
Canadian Modern Language Review, v50 n4 p668-87 Jun 1994
ISSN: 0008-4506
Describes the self-reported strategies of 30 adults who were independent
language learners for a period of 6 months and kept diaries of their language
learning
experiences. High achievers showed significantly more instances of communication-making
and context-making activities, treating language as a medium of communication
rather than as a subject to be learned. (MDM)
The full text of most materials in the ERIC database with an "ED" followed by six digits is available through the ERIC Document Reproduction Service (EDRS) in microfiche, online, or in paper copy. Approximately 80% of ERIC documents from 1993 to the present are available for online ordering and electronic delivery through the EDRS Web site. You can read ERIC documents on microfiche for free at many libraries with monthly subscriptions or specialized collections. To find an ERIC center near you, contact our User Services staff.
The full text of journal articles may be available from one or more of the following sources:
To obtain journals that do not permit reprints and are not available from your library, write directly to the publisher. Addresses of publishers are listed in the front of each issue of Current Index to Journals in Education and can now be accessed online through the CIJE Source Journal Index.
If you would like additional information about this or any topic related to language education or linguistics, contact our User Services Staff.