CAL Resource Guides Online

Language Policy and Planning

A. Alkistis Fleischer, Georgetown University

Introduction
Digests
Journals
Books
Web Sites
ERIC Documents

Introduction

Language planning is generally defined as an intervention intended to influence language or language use. Cooper (1989) defines language planning as "deliberate efforts to influence the behavior of others with respect to the acquisition, structure, or functional allocation of their language codes" (p. 45). Blommaert (1996) extends the scope of language planning "to cover all cases in which authorities attempt, by whatever means, to shape a sociolinguistic profile for their society" (p. 207). The objectives are usually social, political, or economic in character. Language planning is the factual realization of language policy. To the extent that policies are deliberately and consciously created, they usually involve some form of planning (Herriman & Burnaby, 1996).

Several scholars have argued that even when there is no official language policy, the linguistic status quo becomes the implicit policy (Herriman & Burnaby, 1996; Schiffman, 1996). An example of this is the situation in the United States, where there is no explicit, formalized language policy at the federal level. The Constitution does not mention an official or national language, although the document itself was written in English. English, however, is the de facto official language. It is the primary (and in some cases exclusive) language used in education, business, government (state, federal, and local), and the media. The strength of this language policy lies in the basic assumptions that U.S. society makes about language (Schiffman, 1996), including the role the English language plays as a national symbol. The prevalent language ideology portrays English monolingualism as the normal condition and the default American to be a monolingual speaker of English.

The most common form of authority involved in developing language policy is the government. Language planning initiatives are often initiated at a sub-national level (Coulmas, 1994). Education is an important variable in most language planning initiatives; language-in-education planning includes considerations such as the language(s) to be used for instruction, the education of students from language minority groups, and policies about foreign language education for all students. Language planning cannot be understood apart from its social context or the history that produced the context (Cooper, 1989). Like other forms of language planning, language-in-education planning needs to be analyzed in relation to sociopolitical issues.

References

Blommaert, J. (1996). Language planning as a discourse on language and society: The linguistic ideology of a scholarly tradition. Language Problems and Language Planning, 20(3), 199-222.

Cooper, R. L. (1989). Language planning and social change. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Coulmas, F. (1994). Language policy and planning: Political perspectives. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 14, 34-52.

Herriman, M., & Burnaby, B. (Eds.). (1996). Language policies in English-dominant countries. Clevedon, England: Multilingual Matters.

Schiffman, H. (1996). Linguistic culture and language policy. London: Routledge.

Acknowledgements

The author and ERIC/CLL express their appreciation to G. Richard Tucker (Carnegie Mellon University) for his valuable feedback on an early draft of this resource guide.

Resources

The following publications and Web sites provide information on language policy and planning. This resource guide concludes with an annotated bibliography of ERIC documents related to language policy and planning, subdivided into four broad sections: a) Language policy and planning, general; b) Language-in-education policy and planning; c) Language policy and planning in the United States; d) Language policy and planning in other countries and regions.

Digests

Digests are brief overviews of topics in education. The following titles are related to language policy and planning.

English-Only Movement: Its Consequences for the Education of Language Minority Children

Language Policy and Planning

Official English and English Plus: An Update

Promoting a Language Proficient Society: What You Can Do

Tapping a National Resource: Heritage Languages in the United States

Journals

The Annual Review of Applied Linguistics (Cambridge University Press) provides a comprehensive, up-to-date review of research in key areas in the field of applied linguistics. Volume 14 (1993/1994) covered the topic of language policy and planning.

Current Issues in Language Planning (Multilingual Matters) provides major summative and review studies spanning and focusing the disparate language policy and language planning literature related to polities and major issues in the field.

Education Policy Analysis Archives (Arizona State University) is a peer-reviewed electronic journal containing articles about education policy at all levels and in all nations.

International Journal of the Sociology of Language (de Gruyter) is dedicated to the field of the sociology of language. Several issues have dealt with language policy and planning, for example, Issues 70, 74, 77, 80, 86, 118, 127, 142, and 154.

Journal of Language, Identity, and Education (Erlbaum) was launched in 2002. This new journal publishes articles dealing with, among other topics, educational policies, language policies in educational contexts, and the role of ideologies in educational policies

Journal of Multilingual & Multicultural Development (Multilingual Matters) publishes articles on many aspects of multilingualism and multiculturalism, including language policy and planning.

Language Policy (Kluwer) was launched in 2002. This new journal will provide an outlet for studies on language policy and language education policy. It will include detailed accounts of the making of language policy and its implementation.

Language Problems and Language Planning (Benjamins) publishes articles dealing with such topics as language policy, language management, and language conflict.

Notes on Sociolinguistics (SIL International, formerly known as the Summer Institute of Linguistics) provides a forum for discussion by SIL members and others engaged in similar work in any area of sociolinguistics and its application to language development and Bible translation.

Plurilingua (Research Centre on Multilingualism) has published several issues and papers dealing with aspects of language policy and planning. The most recent issue (XXII, 2001) deals with minorities and language policy.

Books

Adams, K. L., & Brink, D. T. (Eds.). (1990). Perspectives on Official English: The campaign for English as the official language of the USA. Berlin: de Gruyter.

Ager, D. E. (1997). Language, community and the state. Exeter: Intellect Books.

Ager, D. E. (2001). Motivation in language planning and language policy. Clevedon, England: Multilingual Matters.

Alisjahbana, S. T. (1976). Language planning for modernization: The case of Indonesian and Malaysian. The Hague: Mouton.

Antia, B. E. (2000). Terminology and language planning. An alternative framework of practice and discourse. Amsterdam: Benjamins.

Baldauf, R. B., Jr., & Luke, A. (Eds.). (1990). Language planning and education in Australasia and the South Pacific. Clevedon, England: Multilingual Matters.

Baron, D. E. (1990). The English-only question: An official language for Americans? New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.

Beer, W. R. & Jacob, J. E. (Eds.). (1985). Language policy and national unity. Totowa, NJ: Rowman and Allanheld.

Bongaerts, T., & de Bot, K. (Eds.). (1997). Perspectives on foreign-language policy: Studies in honour of Theo van Els. Amsterdam: Benjamins.

Bourhis, R. Y. (Ed.). (1984). Conflict and language planning in Quebec. Clevedon, England: Multilingual Matters.

Bugarski, R. & Hawkesworth, C. (Eds.). (1992). Language planning in Yugoslavia. Columbus, OH: Slavica.

Calvet, L. J. (1998). Language wars and linguistic politics (Michel Petheram, Trans.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. (Original work published 1987)

Centre international de recherche sur le bilinguisme (1987). Actes du Colloque international sur l'aménagement linguistique, 25-29 mai, 1986, Ottawa [Proceedings of the International Colloquium on Language Planning, May 25-29, 1986, Ottawa]. Travaux du Centre international de recherche sur le bilinguisme. A-21. Quebec: Presses de l'Université Laval.

Clyne, M. (Ed.). (1997). Undoing and redoing corpus planning. Berlin: de Gruyter.

Cobarrubias, J., & Fishman, J. A. (Eds.). (1983). Progress in language planning: International perspectives. Berlin: Mouton.

Cooper, R. L. (1989). Language planning and social change. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Cooper, R. L., Shohamy, E., & Walters, J. (Eds.). (2001). New perspectives and issues in educational language policy: A festschrift for Bernard Dov Spolsky. Amsterdam: Benjamins.

Corson, D. (1990). Language policy across the curriculum. Clevedon, England: Multilingual Matters.

Corson, D. (1999). Language policy in schools: A resource for teachers and administrators. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

Coulmas, F. (1985). Sprache und Staat: Studien zur Sprachplanung [Language and state: Studies on language planning]. Berlin: de Gruyter.

Coulmas, F. (Ed.). (1991). A language policy for the European Community: Prospects and quandaries. Berlin: de Gruyter.

Crawford, J. (Ed.). (1992a). Language loyalties: A source book on the Official English controversy. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.

Crawford, J. (1992b). Hold your tongue: Bilingualism and the politics of English Only. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.

Crawford, J. (2000). At war with diversity: US language policy in an age of anxiety. Clevedon, England: Multilingual Matters.

Davis, K. A. (1994). Language planning in multilingual contexts: Policies, communities, and schools in Luxembourg. Amsterdam: Benjamins.

de Beaugrande, R., Grosman, M., & Seidlhofer, B. (Eds.). (1998). Language policy and language education in emerging nations: Focus on Slovenia and Croatia and with contributions from Britain, Austria, Spain, and Italy. Stamford, CT: Ablex.

Dua, H. R. (1985). Language planning in India. New Delhi: Harnam.

Eastman, C. M. (1983). Language planning: An introduction. San Francisco, CA: Chandler and Sharp.

Eggington, W. & Wren, H. (Eds.). (1997). Language policy: Dominant English, pluralist challenges. Amsterdam: Benjamins.

Fierman, W. (1991). Language planning and national development: The Uzbek experience. Berlin: de Gruyter.

Fishman, J. A. (Ed.). (1974). Advances in language planning. The Hague: Mouton.

Fishman, J. A. (1991). Reversing language shift: Theoretical and empirical foundations of assistance to threatened languages. Clevedon, England: Multilingual Matters.

Fishman, J. A. (Ed.). (1993). The earliest stage of language planning: The "first congress" phenomenon. Berlin: de Gruyter.

Fishman, J. A. (Ed.). (2000). Can threatened languages be saved? Reversing language shift, revisited: A 21st century perspective. Clevedon, England: Multilingual Matters.

GarcÐa, O., & Baker, C. (Eds.). (1995). Policy and practice in bilingual education: A reader extending the foundations. Clevedon, England: Multilingual Matters.

Haugen, E. (1966). Language conflict and language planning. The case of modern Norwegian. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Haugen, E. (1987). Blessings of Babel: Bilingualism and language planning: Problems and pleasures. Berlin: de Gruyter.

Herriman, M., & Burnaby, B. (Eds.). (1996). Language policies in English-dominant countries. Clevedon, England: Multilingual Matters.

Hornberger, N. H. (Ed.). (1997). Indigenous literacies in the Americas: Language planning from the bottom up. Berlin: de Gruyter.

Huebner, T., & Davis, K. A. (Eds.). (with assistance from Lo Bianco, J.). (1999). Sociopolitical perspectives on language policy and planning in the USA. Amsterdam: Benjamins.

Jahr, E. H. (Ed.). (1993). Language conflict and language planning. Berlin: de Gruyter.

Kaplan, R. B., & Baldauf, R. B., Jr. (1997). Language planning: From practice to theory. Clevedon, England: Multilingual Matters.

Kennedy, C. (Ed.). (1983). Language planning and language education. London: Allen and Unwin.

Khubchandani, L. M. (1997). Revisualizing boundaries: A plurilingual ethos. New Delhi: Sage.

Kibbee, D. A., (Ed.). (1998). Language legislation and linguistic rights: Selected proceedings of the language legislation and linguistic rights conference (University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, March 1996). Amsterdam: Benjamins.

Kirkwood, M. (Ed.). (1990). Language planning in the Soviet Union. New York, NY: St. Martin's Press.

Kloss, H. (1998). The American bilingual tradition (Rev. ed.) (Language in Education: Theory and Practice No. 88). McHenry, IL, and Washington, DC: Delta Systems and Center for Applied Linguistics.

Labrie, N. (1993). La construction linguistique de la communauté européenne. Paris: Honoré Champion.

Lambert, R. D. (Ed.). (1994). Language planning around the world: Contexts and systemic change. Washington, DC: National Foreign Language Center.

Lambert, R. D., & Shohamy, E. (Eds.). (2000). Language policy and pedagogy: Essays in honor of A. Ronald Walton. Amsterdam: Benjamins.

Lamy, P. (Ed.). (1979). Language planning and identity planning. The Hague: Mouton.

Landau, J. M., & Kellner-Heinkele, B. (2001). Politics of language in the ex-Soviet Muslim states: Azerbaijan, Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Turkmenistan, Tajikistan. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press.

Laporte, P. E., & Maurais, J. (1991). Some aspects of language planning in Quebec and Finland. Stoke-on-Trent: Staffordshire Polytechnic.

Leclerc, J., & Maurais, J. (1994). Recueil des législations linguistiques dans le monde (tomes I-VI) [Compendium of language policies in the world (Vols. 1-6)]. Quebec: Centre international de recherche en aménagement linguistique.

Léger, S. (1996). Vers un agenda linguistique: regard futuriste sur les Nations Unies: actes du deuxième colloque, Université d'Ottawa, 25-27 mai 1995 [Towards a language agenda: Futurist outlook on the United Nations: Proceedings of the second conference, 25-27 May 1995]. Ottawa: Centre canadien des droits linguistiques.

Levine, M. V. (1990). The reconquest of Montreal: Language policy and social change in a bilingual city. Philadephia, PA: Temple University Press.

MacMillan, C. M. (1998). The practice of language rights in Canada. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.

Magnet, J. E. (1995). Official languages of Canada: Perspectives from law, policy and the future. Cowansville, Quebec: Yvon Blais.

Marley, D., Hintze, M. A., & Parker, G. (1998). Linguistic identities and policies in France and the French-speaking world. London: Association for French Language Studies and Centre for Information on Language Teaching and Research.

Marshall, D. F. (Ed.). (1991). Language planning: Focusschrift in honor of Joshua A. Fishman on the occasion of his 65th birthday. Volume III. Amsterdam: Benjamins.

Maurais, J. (Ed.). (1987). Politique et aménagement linguistiques [Language policy and planning]. Quebec: Gouvernement du Québec and Conseil de la langue française.

McGroarty, M. E., & Faltis, C. J. (Eds.). (1991). Languages in school and society: Policy and pedagogy. Berlin: de Gruyter.

Nelde, P. H. (1996). Euromosaic: The production and reproduction of the minority language groups of the EU. Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities.

O'Reilly, C. C. (1999). The Irish language in Northern Ireland: The politics of culture and identity. New York, NY: St. Martin's Press.

Ó Riagain, P. (1997). Language policy and social reproduction Ireland 1893-1993. Oxford: Clarendon Press.

Ozolins, U. (1993). The politics of language in Australia. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Paulston, C. B. (1994). Linguistic minorities in multilingual settings: Implications for language policies. Amsterdam: Benjamins.

Peyton, J. K., Ranard, D. A., & McGinnis, S. (Eds.). (2001). Heritage languages in America: Preserving a national resource. McHenry, IL, and Washington, DC: Delta Systems and Center for Applied Linguistics.

Poon, A. Y. K. (2000). Medium of instruction in Hong Kong: Policy and practice. Lanham, MD: University Press of America.

Pupier, P., & Woehrling, J. (Eds.). (1989). Language and law: Proceedings of the first conference of the International Institute of Comparative Linguistic Law. Montreal: Institut international de droit linguistique comparé.

Ricento, T. (Ed.). (2000). Ideology, politics, and language policies: Focus on English. Amsterdam: Benjamins.

Ricento, T., & Burnaby, B. (Eds.). (1998). Language and politics in the United States and Canada. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

Rubin, J., & Jernudd, B. H. (Eds.). (1971). Can language be planned? Sociolinguistic theory and practice for developing nations. Honolulu, HI: University of Hawaii Press.

Rubin, J., & Shuy, R. (Eds.). (1973). Language planning: Current issues and research. Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press.

Schiffman, H. (1996). Linguistic culture and language policy. London: Routledge.

Schmidt, R., Sr. (2000). Language policy and identity politics in the United States. Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press.

Skutnabb-Kangas, T. (2000). Linguistic genocide in education - or worldwide diversity and human rights? Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

Skutnabb-Kangas, T., & Phillipson, R. (Eds.).(in collaboration with Rannut, M.). (1995). Linguistic human rights: Overcoming linguistic discrimination. Berlin: de Gruyter.

Spolsky, B., & Shohamy, E. (1999). The languages of Israel: Policy, ideology and practice. Clevedon, England: Multilingual Matters.

Tollefson, J. W. (Ed.). (2002). Language policies in education: Critical issues. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

Tollefson, J. W. (1991). Planning language, planning inequality: Language policy in the community. London: Longman.

Tollefson, J. W. (Ed.). (1995). Power and inequality in language education. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Weinstein, B. (Ed.). (1990). Language policy and political development. Norwood, NJ: Ablex.

Wiley, T. G. (1996). Literacy and language diversity in the United States. McHenry, IL, and Washington, DC: Delta Systems and Center for Applied Linguistics.

Wodak, R., & Corson, D. (Eds.). (1998). Encyclopedia of language and education. Volume 1: Language policy and political issues in education. Dordrecht, Netherlands: Kluwer.

Web Sites

The mandate of the Canadian Centre for Linguistic Rights includes teaching, research, and publications, and the establishment of a resource center with a collection of publications on linguistic rights.

The Center for Applied Linguistics (CAL) uses the findings of linguistics and related sciences in identifying and addressing language-related problems.

The Center for Research and Documentation on World Language Problems (CRD) is an international body created for the advancement of study, documentation, and education on all aspects of language problems in international relations.

The section on language planning of the Centre interdisciplinaire de recherche sur les activités langagiéres (CIRAL) at Laval University covers foundations of language planning, language policies and linguistic law, language planning in Canada, language planning in Quebec, and language planning in the world. The Web site is in French.

The Consortium for Language Policy and Planning is an unincorporated assembly of university programs, advocacy bodies, and scholars interested in issues of language policy and planning.

Education Commission for the States (ECS) Policy Collections (formerly called State Issues Report) include recent (since 1998) information on the content of statewide language / education initiatives, constitutional amendments, and related state policies.

History, Legislation & Policy in the Online Library of the National Clearinghouse for English Language Acquisition & Language Instruction Educational Programs (formerly called National Clearinghouse for Bilingual Education) covers the history of bilingual education in the United States and related laws, legislation, policies, and political issues. It also covers current national education reform initiatives, as well as pending legislation relevant to linguistic minorities in the United States.

James Crawford's Language Policy Web site covers, among other topics, the English Only movement, English Plus, bilingual education, efforts to save endangered languages, and language rights in the United States.

L'aménagement linguistique dans le monde (in French) provides in-depth, comprehensive information about language policies around the world.

Language Australia supports applied linguistic and cross-cultural research, conducts professional development programs, and produces and disseminates information about language, literacy, and multicultural issues.

Language Futures Europe collects links on the language futures of Europe — on language policy, multilingualism, global language structures, and the dominance of English.

Language Planning Agencies and Language Management Organizations lists language planning agencies and language management organizations in several countries.

Language Policy and Language Rights lists resources in the areas of language policy and language rights. The list has been compiled by the Center for Multilingual, Multicultural Research at the University of Southern California.

The Language Policy Research Center at Bar-Ilan University in Israel carries out research in the study of how societies deal with the demands and benefits of multilingualism.

The Language Policy Research Unit (LPRU) at the College of Education of Arizona State University promotes research and policy analysis on the challenges and opportunities posed by national and global multilingualism.

Links zur europäischen Sprachpolitik features links on language policy in Europe. This Web site is in German.

Mercator Legislation is part of the Mercator Network, a research network and information service concerning regional and minority languages in the European Union. Mercator Linguistic Law and Legislation aims to develop a data base holding all legal and normative documents that build up the European linguistic frame, especially from the European Union institutions and languages.

The Modern Language Centre at the Ontario Institute for Studies in Education (OISE) focuses on curriculum, instruction, and policies for education in second, foreign, and minority languages, particularly in reference to English and French in Canada but also other languages and settings.

The National Foreign Language Center (NFLC) at the University of Maryland focuses on language policy and U.S. needs for competence in languages.

The Research Centre on Multilingualism (R.C.M.) at the Brussels University K.U.B. examines the phenomena of language contact and language conflict. The R.C.M. conducts research and functions as a center for international cooperation.

ERIC Documents

You may wish to conduct your own search of the ERIC database on the World Wide Web. If you need help with your search, call 1-800-276-9834 or email our User Services staff.

Information on obtaining the documents listed below can be found at the end of this section. These documents were identified by searching the ERIC database using a combination of ERIC descriptors and keywords.

a) Language policy and planning, general

ED222076
Annual Review of Applied Linguistics: 1981.
Kaplan, Robert B., Ed.; And Others
Publication Date: 1982
Availability: Newbury House Publishers, Inc., Rowley, MA 01969 ($17.95).
A collection of 18 essays focuses on the linguistic problems involved in accommodating and educating displaced and migrant populations throughout the world. The essays are divided into three sections covering (1) language policy at the national level, (2) language in education policy, and (3) educational practice. Among the specific topics discussed are language planning, bilingualism, the education of language minorities, bilingual education, and literacy in Eastern Africa, Australia, China, the Philippines, South Asia, the United States, England, the Arab Middle East, and New Zealand. Many of the papers are accompanied by annotated bibliographies.

ED233562
Language Planning.
Kennedy, Chris
Language Teaching, v15 n4 p264-84 Oct 1982
Available from: EDRS Price MF01/PC01 Plus Postage.
An overview of the field of language planning and an updated bibliography are presented. Language planning is defined as the planning of deliberate changes in the form or use of a language or language variety and viewed as a subdiscipline of sociolinguistics. Among the topics discussed are the scope of language planning, an ideal language planning program, aims of language planning, types and levels of language planning, the role of the linguist in language planning, language planning surveys, implementation and evaluation of language planning, bilingual education, and educational policy.

ED268803
Language Planning at the International Level. Report of the Annual Conference of the Center for Research and Documentation on World Language Problems (3rd, New York, New York, December 14, 1984).
Tonkin, Humphrey, Ed.; Johnson-Weiner, Karen, Ed.
Publication Date: 1985
ISBN: 0-934973-03-2
Available from: EDRS Price MF01 Plus Postage. PC Not Available from EDRS.
Availability: Center for Research and Documentation on World Language Problems, 777 United Nations Plaza, New York, NY 10017 ($10.00).
The proceedings of the conference include the opening address (Francoise Cestac) and these papers: "False Friendship in International Language Planning" (Joseph L. Malone); "Guidelines for Terminology Standardization at the United Nations" (Marie-Josee Jastrab); "Language Policy at the Agence de Cooperation Culturelle et Technique" (Jean-Claude Corbeil); "Language Training in the Context of Language Planning in International Organizations" (Youssef Mahmoud); "Language Planning, Planned Languages and International Organizations" (Humphrey Tonkin); "Preserving Multilingualism in the European Community" (Brian Moon); "The Efficient Planning of Conference Interpretation" (Bruce Boeglin); "Simultaneous Sign Language Interpretation" (Roland Wesemael); "Language Planning and the Automatic Translation System DLT" (Alex Olde-Kalter); "Intermediate Language in Multi-Language Simulations" (Amri Wandel); and "Planned Language Services in International Business" (Eva Berry). Appended materials include a description of the Center for Research and Documentation on World Language Problems, lists of future conferences, and current conference participants.

ED303051
Language Policy and Planning. ERIC Digest.
Robinson, David
ERIC Clearinghouse on Languages and Linguistics, Washington, DC.
Publication Date: December 1988
Available from: EDRS Price MF01/PC01 Plus Postage and online at http://www.ed.gov/databases/ERIC_Digests/ed303051.html
Language planning is official, government-level activity concerning the selection and promotion of a unified administrative language or languages. Language planning initiatives arise in response to sociopolitical needs and attempt to meet those needs by reducing linguistic diversity. Several stages occur in the language planning process. The first stage, needs analysis, involves the selection of the language or language variety. The next stages are called "status planning" and include codification and standardization. Fine-tuning the selected language or language variety is called "corpus planning" and includes elaboration and cultivation. Specific areas of language use that are affected by language planning decisions include writing systems, lexicon, and syntax. Responses from educational systems to language planning decisions include monolingual instructional programs, transitional bilingual education programs, language maintenance programs, and immersion programs. Many different groups of people are involved in language planning initiatives, including sociologists, political scientists, educators, linguists, writers, and national language academies. The status of language planning in the United States is described.

ED422715
Language and Politics in the United States and Canada: Myths and Realities.
Ricento, Thomas, Ed.; Burnaby, Barbara, Ed.
Publication Date: 1998
ISBN: 0-8058-2839-7
Availability: Lawrence Erlbaum and Associates, Publishers, 10 Industrial Ave., Mahwah, NJ 07430 (paperback: ISBN-0-8058-2839-7; hardcover: ISBN-0-8058-2838-9).
This collection includes the following essays on language and politics in North America: "Respecting the Citizens: Reflections on Language Policy in Canada and the United States" (Colin H. Williams); "The Politics of Language in Canada and the United States: Explaining the Differences" (Ronald Schmidt, Sr.); "Demographic Considerations in Canadian Language Policy" (Roderic Beaujot); "National Language Policy in the United States" (Thomas Ricento); "Life on the Edge: Canada's Aboriginal Languages under Official Bilingualism" (Mark Fettes); "Endangered Native American Languages: What Is To Be Done, and Why?" (James Crawford); "Legal Implications of the Official English Declaration" (Susan Miner); "Language Rights Theory in Canadian Perspective" (Joseph Eliot Magnet); "The Imposition of World War I Era English-Only Policies and the Fate of German in North America" (Terrence G. Wiley); "ESL Policy in Canada and the United States: Basis for Comparison" (Barbara Burnaby); "French-Language Services in Ontario: A Policy of 'Overly Prudent Gradualism'?" (Don Cartwright); "Quebec, Canada, and the United States: Social reality and Language Rights" (Calvin Veltman); "Partitioning by Language: Whose Rights Are Threatened?" (Thomas Ricento); and "Conclusion: Myths and Realities" (Barbara Burnaby, Thomas Ricento).

ED445532
Language Legislation and Linguistic Rights: Selected Proceedings of the Language Legislation and Linguistic Rights Conference (Urbana-Champaign, Illinois, March 21-23, 1996).
IMPACT: Studies in Language and Society, Volume 2.
Kibbee, Douglas A. Ed.
Publication Date: 1998
ISBN: 1-55619-851-5
ISSN: 1385-7908
Availability: John Benjamins North America, P.O. Box 27519, Philadelphia, PA 19118-0519 ($87). Tel: 800-562-5666 (Toll Free).
This edited volume of conference papers contains the following titles: "Presentation: Realism and Idealism in Language Conflict and Their Resolution" (Douglas A. Kibbee); "Legal and Linguistic Perspectives on Language Legislation" (Douglas A. Kibbee); "The Linguistic Rights of Non-English Speaking Suspects, Witnesses, Victims, and Defendants" (Kate Storey); "Great Mischiefs--An Historical Look at Language Legislation" (Ruth Morris); "The Criminalization of Spanish in the United States" (Patricia MacGregor-Mendoza); "Towards Consensus? Standard English in the National Curriculum" (Joan Swann); "Beyond Anglo-Saxon Confederation: The Clash of World Hegemonies in the Language Ideologies of Arthur Balfour and Woodrow Wilson" (Chris Andre); "Anatomy of the English-Only Movement: Social and Ideological Sources of Language Restrictionism in the United States" (James Crawford); "The Courts, the Legislature and Society: The Shaping of Federal Language Policy in the United States" (Thomas Ricento); "Language Rights Arguments in Central Europe and the USA: How Similar Are They?" (Miklos Kontra); "What Happens After English is Declared the Official Language of the United States?" (Terrence G. Wiley); "A Historical Perspective on Language Policy in Russia" (Elena Schmitt); "Majority Language, Minority Misery: The Case of Sri Lanka" (Richard W. Bailey); "On the Eleven-Official Languages Policy of the New South Africa" (Sheila Mmusi); "OAU's Resolutions on African Languages and the State of Their Implementation" (Kahambo Mateene); "Language Policy in Education and the Future of Indigenous Languages in Post-Apartheid South Africa" (Joyce B. Sukumane); "Language and Human Rights in Africa" (Michel Ngussan) "The Case for Brazilian Sign Language: A Deaf Community Finds Its Voice" (Norine Berenz); "Requirements, Dynamics and Realities of Language Use in the EU: A Case Study of the European Commission" (Carsten Quell); "French Language Policy and Francophonie" (Louis-Jean Calvet); "Quebec's Charter of the French Language Twenty Years After" (Gerald Paquette); "The Philosophy of the French Language Legislation: Internal and International Aspects" (Yves Marek); "The Role of the French Language in Maintaining Linguistic Diversity in North America: Some Gluttopolitical Considerations" (Normand Labrie). A bibliography is included, and is divided in general and court decision sections. There are also three indexes -- for personal names, languages, and a general index. Scholarly references appear at the end of each paper.

ED445536
Language Policy: Dominant English, Pluralist Challenges.
Eggington, William, Ed.; Wren, Helen, Ed.
Language Australia Ltd., Canberra
Publication Date: 1997
ISBN: 1-55619-517-6
Availability: John Benjamins North America, P.O. Box 27519, Philadelphia, PA 19118-0519 ($30.95). Tel: 800-562-5666 (Toll Free).
This book examines the impact of English in countries in which it is taken for granted--Australia, Britain, Canada, New Zealand, and the United States. It explores how the impact of English affects the development of national language policies, the maintenance of minority languages, the ability to provide services in other languages, the efforts to promote first language and bilingual education programs, and the opportunities for adult and child second language literacy training. Language and language-in-education policies are examined and the extent to which English language dominance influences some policies and preludes others is discussed. The book also explores the professional viability of a statement on national language policies that could be adopted by the International Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages organization as a statement of principles. The book is divided into three parts: "The Dominance of English and National Language Policies: An Overview"; "Language and Language-In-Education Policies in English Dominant Nations"; and "Teaching Within Language and Language-In-Education Policies." Extensive references are found at the conclusion of each chapter.

EJ307292
Orientations in Language Planning.
Ruiz, Richard
NABE: The Journal for the National Association for Bilingual Education, v8 n2 p15-34 Win 1984
Proposes three basic orientations toward language and its role in society: language-as-problem, language-as-right, and language-as-resource. Considers bilingual education in framework of these orientations. Sees the development and elaboration of a language-resource orientation as important for the integration of bilingual education into a responsible language policy for the United States.

EJ310199
Language Planning Goals: A Classification.
Nahir, Moshe
Language Problems and Language Planning, v8 n3 p294-327 Fall 1984
Presents a classification of 11 language planning functions or goals that academies, committees, and commissions have been engaged in since language planning began several centuries ago or could adopt in the future. Language planning is defined as deliberate, institutionally organized attempts at affecting linguistic or sociolinguistic status or development of language.

EJ447335
Language Planning as Discipline.
Jernudd, Bjorn H.
Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, v12 n1-2 p127-34 1991
ISSN: 0143-4632
A social science approach to language planning is contrasted with a language management approach to language planning. It is suggested that students of language planning need to go beyond discourse management and the social sciences if the task is to explain that language is the fundamental institution of society because to plan language is to plan society. (28 references)

EJ481605
Language Policy and Planning: Fundamental Issues.
Kaplan, Robert B.
Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, v14 p3-19 1993-94
ISSN: 0267-1905
Fundamental issues in language policy and planning are discussed: language death, language survival, language change, language revival, language shift and expansion, language contact and pidginization or creolization, and literacy development. (Contains 21 references.)

EJ481607
Language Policy and Planning: Political Perspectives.
Coulmas, Florian
Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, v14 p34-52 1993-94
ISSN: 0267-1905
Worldwide political influences on language policy and planning are discussed, including the growth of nationalism, scripts as political symbols, the symbolism of a name, regionalization, democratization, minority rights, and multiculturalism. (Contains 50 references.)

EJ481609
"Unplanned" Language Policy and Planning.
Baldauf, Richard B., Jr.
Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, v14 p82-89 1993-94
ISSN: 0267-1905
It is argued that "unplanned" language policy and planning are an important but underexamined aspect of the field of language planning. Planners must consider the problems raised by "unplanned" aspects and scholars must document their effects on language planning. (Contains 15 references.)

EJ481620
Concluding Thoughts: Language Planning Issues for the Coming Decade.
Tucker, G. Richard
Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, v14 p277-83 1993-94
ISSN: 0267-1905
Five themes are addressed: the role of language planning/policy in marking world events; ethnic revitalization; continuing migration and mobility; differential perceptions of the role of the mother tongue in primary education; and the potential contributions of language planning to educational and national development. (Contains 16 references.)

EJ527810
The Politics of Language Conflict: Implications for Language Planning and Political Theory.
Dua, Hans Raj
Language Problems and Language Planning, v20 n1 p1-17 Spr 1996
ISSN: 0272-2690
Examines the different forms of language conflicts, which have been characterized on the basis of four features: language as symbol, as instrumentality, as resource, and as power. It is suggested that there is a need for the development of an explanatory model of language conflicts for viable language policies. (29 references)

EJ541073
Minority Language Rights.
O Riagain, Padraig; Shuibhne, Niamh Nic
Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, v17 p11-29 1997
ISSN: 0267-1905
A survey of literature since 1990 on minority languages and language rights focuses on five issues: definition of minorities; individual vs. collective rights; legal bases for minority linguistic rights; applications and interpretations of minority language rights; and assessments of the impact of minority rights legislation. A nine-item annotated bibliography is included.

EJ541138
Language Planning as a Discourse on Language and Society: The Linguistic Ideology of a Scholarly Tradition.
Blommaert, Jan
Language Problems and Language Planning, v20 n3 p199-222 Fall 1996
ISSN: 0272-2690
Evaluates the past performance of the tradition of language planning, in view of a theoretical, conceptual, and methodological improvement of future language planning studies. Sketches the historical development of these studies, discusses ideological features present in much traditional language planning work, and raises various issues related to the background and limitations of language planning. (53 references)

EJ544534
Language-Spread Policy.
Ammon, Ulrich
Language Problems and Language Planning, v21 n1 p51-57 Spr 1997
ISSN: 0272-2690
Language-spread policy (LSP) is policy promulgated by groups seeking to spread their languages to speakers or communicative domains. LSP can be internal or external, overt or disguised, and related in different ways to national policy. Intent may be to increase native-language advantage in international communication, disseminate ideology, create economic ties, profit economically from language teaching, and enhance national pride.

EJ587971
Theory and Practice in the Discourse of Language Planning.
De Beaugrande, Robert
World Englishes, v18 n2 p107-21 Jul 1999
ISSN: 0883-2919
Language planning confronts a situation in which human rights have become inclusive in theory but remain exclusive in practice, often deploying language or language varieties as pretexts for exclusion. This article suggests that language planning should promote a dialectic between inclusive theories and inclusive practices within its own projects and within its own discourse, and should deconstruct exclusive ones.

EJ605131
Historical and Theoretical Perspectives in Language Policy and Planning.
Ricento, Thomas
Journal of Sociolinguistics, v4 n2 p196-213 May 2000
ISSN: 1360-6441
Explores the evolution of language policy and planning (LPP) as an area of research from the end of World War II to the present. Based on analysis of the LPP literature, three types of factors are identified as having been instrumental in shaping the field: macro sociopolitical, epistemological, and strategic.

b) Language-in-education policy and planning

ED231222
Educational Policy for Linguistic and Cultural Minorities: The State and the Individual.
Noah, Harold J.
Publication Date: April 11, 1983
Available from: EDRS Price MF01/PC01 Plus Postage.
The problem of educational policy for language minorities, particularly those minorities who might be considered oppressed, include the right to education in the minority language. Rights properly considered also carry with them obligations; in this case, minority language speakers would have obligations toward the language of the majority. Two considerations in the area of minority and majority claims and counterclaims relate to economics and to the concept of "mediating structures." Economic considerations relate to the costs and benefits of different policies, as evaluated by the different language groups. These evaluations affect the extent to which formally enunciated rights and obligations are honored in practice. With regard to policy, its aim should be to minimize the perceived costs of a pluralistic approach and to maximize the perceived benefits to all concerned. The second set of considerations on "mediating structures" is shown to be relevant for policies governing the education of language minorities. The controlling aim should be to enable the minority family and its children to negotiate the "megastructures" of society. The mediating structures--neighborhoods, churches, voluntary associations, and the like--would assist the families in the negotiation.

ED246152
Language and Literacy: An Overview of Policies and Programs in Five OECD Member Countries.
Rist, Ray C.
Publication Date: December 1979
Available from: EDRS Price MF01/PC02 Plus Postage.
This paper describes the results of a study conducted by the Center for Educational Research and Innovation regarding language policies and programs in five countries which belong to the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development: Canada, France, Spain, the United Kingdom, and West Germany. Part I explains the study's focus on language diversity and how it is addressed within the educational systems of the countries studied. It is assumed that the role ascribed to language is a key one to a better understanding of the position of various cultural groups in a society. The study methodology and content are described. (A set of simultaneous case studies were taken, each developed according to a common frame of reference.) Part II discusses the distinctions drawn between each country for the purpose of analysis: historical and ecological considerations; geographical boundedness versus dispersal; time the special population has been within the national boundaries; government policy on culture and language; the permanence/impermanence of the language/cultural minority group; and governmental policymaking (centralized versus decentralized). In Part III, the data from all five countries are analyzed collectively in relation to three themes--organization, finance, and governance. A postscript reiterates that language and literacy policies accurately reflect social and political conditions. A concluding section recommends areas for further study.

ED246665
The Materials Development Problem in Planned Language Modernization Programs.
Baldauf, Richard B., Jr.
Publication Date: 1984
Available from: EDRS Price MF01/PC01 Plus Postage.
Implementation of a language modernization process such as one occurring in the Pacific basin is as important as the policy development behind it. Three critical factors in implementation are teacher training, the development of good teaching materials, and a plan for evaluating program effectiveness. Attempts to meet the need for good language-based teaching materials illustrate the difficulties and possible solutions in a language modernization situation. Literacy materials begin to address the problem, but are often developed for adults and are not suitable for school instruction. Vernacular literacy materials have been developed in some cases, but no complete program of study is now available. Researchers have developed guidelines for literacy material design based on recent experience with literacy curriculum. When producing content area materials, authors must first use creative processes rather than consulting existing materials to avoid duplication. In addition, care must be taken to integrate effective but possibly alien instructional strategies with vernacular material, a process in which the skills of language planners and linguists are needed.

ED288357
Global Perspectives on Language Policy and Education.
Garcia, Ricardo L.
Publication Date: October 1987
Available from: EDRS Price MF01/PC02 Plus Postage.
A discussion of the link between a nation's goals and its language education policy looks at four kinds of language education policies reflecting national goals. The paper examines the language education systems of the Soviet Union and the Philippines for evidence of this link. The comparison reveals striking similarities between the systems, including: use of the national language as a medium of instruction; requirement of literacy in a standardized national language; requirement of a second language that will allow access to current scientific and technological knowledge; problems in training a sufficient number of teachers who are bilingual and able to teach in non-western vernaculars; and centralized education systems that differ greatly from the American model. It is concluded that the United States should consider an official policy statement concerning English as the nation's lingua franca and second language learning as tools for internationalizing the nation, especially if the policy were linked to broader transcendent aims of national cohesion and viability within the global community.

ED312896
Developing a Language Competent American Society: The Role of Language Planning.
Tucker, G. Richard
Author Affiliation: Center for Applied Linguistics, Washington, DC.
Publication Date: May 1989
Available from: EDRS Price MF01/PC01 Plus Postage.
Increasingly, applied linguists have been working with counterpart teachers who are subject-matter specialists to develop innovative programs to integrate the teaching of language and content. In some places, integration of language and content instruction involves implementation of two-way bilingual (interlocking) immersion programs. Such work falls into the general rubric of language (education) policy or planning. The role of language in education in several disparate settings is illustrated by the adoption of different policies and practices. In the People's Republic of China, English is taught non-intensively as a foreign language as part of the regular middle school curriculum, followed by more intensive English for special purposes for those with a demonstrable need for further study in English. Nigeria provides transitional bilingual education with a limited maintenance component. The Philippines offers full bilingual education with a complete integration of language and content instruction throughout education cycles. The process by which a country chooses an appropriate model represents educational language planning. This process has relevance for policy formation in the United States.

ED317089
(Bi)literacy and Empowerment: Education for Indigenous Groups in Brazil.
Chacoff, Ana
Publication Date: November 1989
Available from: EDRS Price MF01/PC01 Plus Postage.
There are approximately 170 indigenous languages spoken in Brazil, by a population of about 200,000. Language policy regarding these communities has not been well defined or explicit. Through several changes of constitution, only Portuguese has been considered the national and official language. Only recently has the government begun to develop a formal policy giving justice to linguistic minorities. Bilingual education for Indians and the right to maintain native languages were ensured in 1966. Instruction in native languages was established in 1973. However, this policy has not been widely implemented. Two viewpoints emerge in the literature: (1) that the native language should be used for development of first language skills, and (2) that Portuguese should be the medium of instruction. There is no consensus about language choice. The result is that in practice, bilingual education in Brazil is either transitional or mingled with the literacy process, in which both languages are used simultaneously for a brief time. Independent bilingual education projects have adopted Freirean methodology and support cultural pluralism and indigenous autonomy. There is evidence that these independent efforts, while purporting to be pluralistic, are actually assimilative in orientation. A 40-item bibliography is included.

ED324929
Language Planning in Preschool Education with "Annotated Bibliography."
Cazden, Courtney B.; And Others
Publication Date: April 1990
Available from: EDRS Price MF01/PC04 Plus Postage.
A discussion of language in preschool education reviews research findings on children's language acquisition and its relationship to their general development and examines issues to be considered in making decisions for each community and program. The first section summarizes basic knowledge about preschool language development, facilitating language development at this stage, and the specific language problems faced by multilingual preschool children at home and in group care. The second section looks more closely at the sociolinguistic dimensions affecting language choice and proficiency. in the next section, three preschool program descriptions are given, each involving a situation in which a higher-status national language coexists with an indigenous language. They include a Spanish-Quechua/Aymara transitional bilingual program (Peru), a Gaelic maintenance program in Scotland's Western Isles, and a Maori revitalization program (New Zealand). The fourth section discusses practical aspects of planning for language learning and emergent literacy in preschool environments, including group size and organization, adult-child relationships, choice of language, instructional materials, staffing and staff training, adult and community participation, and administration. A brief "conclusion" and a list of almost 100 references conclude this part of the document. A special feature of the "annotated bibliography" which follows is that the annotations are written around themes (countries/communities and language use at the preschool level) and are similar in nature to essay reviews. Entries are listed alphabetically by country and information is provided under the following headings: document source; community (including language situation); educational system specifics; program (including characteristics/components); and comments.

ED328060
Foreign Language Policy-Making from a Dutch and European Point of View.
van Els, Theo J. M.
Publication Date: October 12, 1990
Available from: EDRS Price MF01/PC02 Plus Postage.
A discussion of public language policy formation focuses on the situation in the Netherlands and Europe. First, a number of considerations in the formation of second language instruction policy are reviewed, including determination of content, conditions of instruction, and languages to be taught. The Dutch national program for foreign language instruction is described. The program was designed to enhance language instruction, in response to concern about the foreign language competence and projected language competence needs of the Dutch population. Some of the program's policy recommendations are summarized, including those concerning the role of language instruction in the overall education system, how to divide language instruction within and outside the formal education system, regulatory measures, and adjustment of objectives to match language needs. The political perspectives of two international organizations, the Council of Europe and the European Community, are also outlined. It is concluded that a policy for language instruction should be established separate from general educational policy and general language use policy, and that the role of central authorities, governmental and organizational, may vary a great deal. A brief list of references, data on Dutch children's language competence, and a policy-formation checklist are appended.

ED331315
Sociolinguistic Considerations in Literacy Planning.
Ramirez, Arnulfo G.
Publication Date: 1991
Available from: EDRS Price MF01/PC02 Plus Postage.
The development of biliteracy programs designed for adults involves a broad range of sociolinguistic questions that can be approached from a language planning perspective. As a problem-solving activity, language planning is the realization of language policy that a government adopts in respect to such issues as language diversity, minority language treatment, language standardization, or the national language question. Language planning stresses the social nature of language, its functions in society, and the attitudes or group needs with respect to the different languages or speech varieties. From this perspective, the development of biliteracy programs can follow a series of stages and activities initially conceived for use by developing countries. These include: (1) fact finding about sociolinguistic concerns; (2) identification of literacy goals, including the role of native language literacy skills in relation to the second language, specification of literacy skills in terms of both individual and societal needs, and proposal of strategies for reaching the various goals; (3) preparation of materials and curriculum; (4) implementation and information dissemination; and (5) evaluation. A 70-item bibliography is included.

ED335871
Implications of the New Dutch National Action Plan for American Foreign Language Policy. NFLC Position Papers.
Lambert, Richard D.
Publication Date: June 1991
Available from: EDRS Price MF01/PC01 Plus Postage.
Treatment of some issues in a new Dutch plan for foreign language instruction is compared to treatment of similar issues in the United States. The Dutch plan assumes that centralized, national planning is essential, with the various segments of the foreign language instructional system being assigned interlocking roles and responsibilities. American education has resisted this degree of national policy planning for language instruction. The Dutch plan also gives a great deal of attention to decisions about which languages will be required or offered in different institution types, and to differentiating between required and optional languages. Unlike the American system, which encourages proliferation, the Dutch decision has been to limit and make consistent the languages taught at various levels. In the Dutch plan, the level at which each language should be taught, how long it is taught, and to what students is specified, a policy option not taken in the United States. In addition, while the Dutch plan incorporates a well-developed occupation-oriented language instruction system in the same framework as in the formal school system, in the United States, adult/occupational language training is planned separately. Testing standards and procedures are centralized in the Netherlands and not in the United States.

ED354728
Acquisition Policy Planning and Litigation: Language Planning in the Context of "Y.S. v. District of Philadelphia."
Skilton, Ellen E.
Working Papers in Educational Linguistics, v8 n2 p55-87 Fall 1992
Available from: EDRS Price MF01/PC02 Plus Postage.
This paper discusses language policy and educational practice in the context of a class action law suit filed on behalf of Asian students in Philadelphia concerning their linguistic and academic needs. It addresses both macro and micro perspectives in its discussion of litigation policy, acquisition policy planning, and Asian Americans in the United States. The analysis incorporates Rubin's (1971) and Fishman's (1979) frameworks as tools for understanding language planning processes in this particular context. In addition, orientations to language planning, the planners and actors involved in the process, and the specific curricular and personnel changes that resulted from this law suit are discussed in an effort to both understand the particular complexities of this situation as well as to evaluate the effectiveness of the relationship between litigation policy and acquisition policy planning in implementing programs for language minority students in American schools.

ED365155
National Foreign Language Planning: Practices and Prospects.
Sajavaara, Kari, Ed.; And Others
Publication Date: 1993
ISBN: 951-34-0060-3
Available from: EDRS Price MF01 Plus Postage. PC Not Available from EDRS.
Availability: Institute for Educational Research, University of Jyvaskyla, P.O. Box 35, 40351, Jyvaskyla, Finland.
A selection of essays on foreign language planning at the national level contains articles on the language planning process, language choice, teacher education, testing and assessment, and transnational planning. Essays include the following: "Foreign Language Teaching Policy: Some Planning Issues" (Theo J. M. van Els); "Foreign Language Planning in the United States" (Richard D. Lambert); "Communication, Foreign Languages, and Foreign Language Policy" (Kari Sajavaara); "Language Policy and Language Teaching in Finland" (Sauli Takala); "Problems in the Implementation of Foreign Language Policy in Finland" (Marja-Liisa Karppinen); "Languages and Policy in Estonia" (Urve Laanemets); Human Rights and Foreign Languages" (Robert Phillipson); "Language Choice and Its Impact: The Sociocultural Factor in Language Education Strategies" (Elisabetta Zuanelli Sonino); "Less Commonly Taught Languages in the United States: Needs, Capacities, and Strategies for Development" (Richard D. Brecht, A. Ronald Walton); "Teacher Education and National Foreign Language Policies" (Gerald Westhoff); "Foreign Language Policy, Pedagogy, and Practice: An American Perspective" (Diane W. Birckbichler); "Transparency, Coherence, and Washback in Language Assessment" (Brian North); "Testing and Examinations in a National Foreign Language Policy" (Bernard Spolsky); and "The Integration of European and National Foreign Language Policies: The European Community's LINGUA Program" (Antony Shaw).

ED366934
Knowledge, Culture, and Power: International Perspectives on Literacy as Policy and Practice.
Freebody, Peter, Ed.; Welch, Anthony R., Ed.
Publication Date: 1993
ISBN: 0-8229-6102-4
Availability: University of Pittsburgh Press, 127 North Bellefield Avenue, Pittsburgh, PA 15260 (hardback: ISBN-0-8229-1177-9, $49.95; paperback: ISBN-0-8229-6102-4, $19.95).
Of interest to students of literacy, education, planning, and policy studies and cross-cultural analysis, this book examines the cultural and political dynamics underlying literacy. Case studies focusing on the historical role of literacy and the maintenance or suppression of marginal groups are complemented in the book by reports of data on access to literacy competence for various sub-national minority groups. Issues discussed in the book are framed by close attention to educational, policy, popular, or media accounts of literacy. Chapters in the book are: (1) "Introduction: Explanations of the Current International 'Literacy Crises'" (Anthony R. Welch and Peter Freebody); (2) "Literacy Strategies: A View from the International Literacy Year Secretariat of UNESCO" (Leslie J. Limage); (3) "The Pen and the Sword: Literacy, Education and the Revolution in Kurdistan" (Amir Hassanpour); (4) "Aboriginal Education in Northern Australia: A Case Study of Literacy Policies and Practices" (Christine Walton); (5) "Rights and Expectations in an Age of 'Debt Crisis': Literacy and Integral Human Development in Papua New Guinea" (Naihuwo Ahai and Nicholas Faraclas); (6) "Literacy and Primary Education in India" (Krishna Kumar); (7) "Adult Literacy in Nicaragua 1979-90" (Colin Lankshear); (8) "Literacy and the Dynamics of Language Planning: The Case of Singapore" (Anna Kwan-Terry and John Kwan-Terry); (9) "'The Troubled Text': History and Language in American University Basic Writing Programs" (James Collins); (10) "Workplace Literacy in Australia: Competing Agenda" (Peter O'Connor); and (11) "Individualization and Domestication in Current Literacy Debates in Australia" (Peter Freebody and Anthony R. Welch).

ED369293
Language Policy, Literacy, and Culture. Roundtable Discussion from the International Conference on Education (43rd, Geneva, Switzerland, September 18, 1992).
Author Affiliation: United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization, Paris (France).
Publication Date: September 18, 1992
Available from: EDRS Price MF01/PC03 Plus Postage.
The key role that language and language policy play in relation to education, culture, and multiculturalism was emphasized throughout the plenary and workshop discussions of the 43rd Session of the International Conference on Education, convened by UNESCO in September, 1992. This paper reports the roundtable discussions of this meeting. The chapter by William F. Mackey examines differences among these three concepts in context, content, and the constraints that their treatment imposes on national and/or educational policy. Ayo Bamgbose describes policy options for language policies in basic education in Africa and argues that the need to associate language policy more closely with educational objectives is key when considering policy options. Mary Clay uses case study examples to show the effects that some language policies have had on language learning. Children's literacy in Latin America is discussed in a chapter by Emilia Ferreiro. Official recognition of plurilingualism in the Asian region and language policy is the focus of the chapter by D. P. Pattanayak. Brian V. Street provides a social anthropological view of literacy and culture, describes new approaches to the study of literacy and policy implications of these approaches, and details ethnographic examples of what people actually do with literacy in their everyday lives.

ED382002
Some Guidelines for a Literacy and Language Policy.
Rogers, Alan
Publication Date: 1994
Available from: EDRS Price MF01/PC01 Plus Postage.
Guidelines are presented that were produced as a result of discussions at a gathering of international scholars and practitioners at an international seminar on "Sustaining Local Literacies: People, Language, and Power," organized by Education for Development and held at the University of Reading (United Kingdom) on March 19-20, 1993. During the seminar, it was felt that there is a need to redress the misleading images and representations of literacy and language work that dominate much reporting of literacy activities in Third World contexts. These Guidelines are offered as a means of drawing attention to the importance of language issues in literacy work and as a help to those working in the area. They are not prescriptive or fixed and will be modified with experience according to the specific situations of different countries and regions. The Guidelines outline statements on principles of language and literacy respect and socio-cultural awareness; the need for a language and literacy policy in every country and what it should cover; resources for oral, written, and visual histories; and development policies for creoles, dialects, and standardized languages.

ED384251
Policy and Practice in Bilingual Education: A Reader Extending the Foundations. Bilingual Education and Bilingualism 2 Series.
Garcia, Ofelia, Ed.; Baker, Colin, Ed.
Publication Date: 1995
ISBN: 1-85359-266-8
Availability: Multilingual Matters, Ltd., 1900 Frost Road, Suite 101, Bristol, PA 19007 (paperback: ISBN-1-85359-266-8; hardback: ISBN-1-85359-267-6).
This book can be used as a comprehensive introduction for instructors, researchers, and students, and as an interactive text for students. In designing the text the authors have been particularly attentive to the needs in teacher education, especially in the preparation of bilingual teachers. Thus, each of the readings is followed by questions and activities that engage students in reflection and practices that may transform their own thinking, as well as the schools, classrooms, and communities to which they will contribute. Articles include: "Past and Future Directions of Federal Bilingual Education Policy" (James J. Lyons); "Bilingual Education: Politics or Pedagogy?" (Ursula Casanova); "Educational Language Planning in England and Wales" (Michael Stubbs); "Multilingualism and the Education of Minority Children" (Tove Skutnabb-Kangas); "Bilingual Education and Anti-Racist Education" (Jim Cummins); "Realities of Teaching in a Multiethnic School" (David Corson); "A Spanish-English Dual Language Program in New York City" (Sidney H. Morison); "Bilingual Education of Cuban-American Children in Dade County's Ethnic School" (Ofelia Garcia, Ricardo Otheguy); "Empowering Minority Students' (Jim Cummins); "Canadian Second Language Immersion Program" (Fred Genesee); "Heritage Language Teaching in Canadian Schools" (Jim Cummins); "European Models of Bilingual Education" (Hugo Baetens Beardsmore); "Bilingual Education in Wales" (Colin Baker); "Allocating Two Languages as a Key Feature of a Bilingual Methodology" (Rodolfo Jacobson); "Creating Successful Learning Contexts for Bilingual Literacy" (Nancy H. Hornberger); "Relating Experience and Text: Socially Constituted Reading Activity" (Concha Delgado-Gaitan); "A Process Approach to Literacy Using Dialogue Journals and Literature Logs with Second Language Learners" (Maria de la Luz Reyes); "Combining Language and Content for Second-Language Students" (Donna Christian, and others); "Language Education in Bilingual Acadia" (William Francis Mackey); "Cooperative Learning" (Evelyn Jacob, Beverly Mattson); "Creative Education for Bilingual Teachers" (Alma Flor Ada); "Building Bridges between Parents and the School" (Christian J. Faltis); "Recasting Frames: Latino Parent Involvement" (Maria E. Torres-Guzman); and "Bilingual Classroom Studies and Community Analysis" (Luis C. Moll).

ED385136
Language Planning in Multilingual Contexts: Policies, Communities, and Schools in Luxembourg.
Davis, Kathryn Anne
Publication Date: 1994
ISBN: 1-55619-539-7
Availability: John Benjamins Publishing Company, 821 Bethlehem Pike, Philadelphia, PA 19118.
A study investigated the factors that affect language choices and uses within Luxembourg, a multilingual country. Patterns of language use within and across communities are viewed in terms of the interrelationships among language policy intent, implementation, and experience. The study involved classroom observation in elementary, secondary, and postsecondary schools, interviews with teachers and school administrators, and case studies of working, middle, and upper class families. The resulting report is presented in seven sections. The first examines Luxembourg's financial crisis of 1975 and the social change that followed, including changes in language and education policy and planning for the multilingual population. The second section looks at the interrelationships of political, socioeconomic, and language development in this context. Sections 3 and 4 focus on how language use affects social interaction and schooling. Three family profiles are presented in the next two sections, each representing language use and language attitudes in a different socioeconomic class. Finally, language policy and planning issues in Luxembourg are discussed. Questionnaires used in the study (general language use, student language, interview protocols) are appended. Contains eight pages of references.

ED416045
Indigenous Literacies in the Americas: Language Planning from the Bottom up. Contributions to the Sociology of Language, 75.
Hornberger, Nancy H., Ed.
Publication Date: 1996
ISBN: 3-11-015217-7
Availability: Mouton de Gruyter, Inc., 200 Saw Mill River Rd., Hawthorne, NY 10532 ($132.00).
This book documents goals, challenges, and prospects in contemporary efforts to develop alphabetic literacies in traditionally unwritten languages, using case study examples of indigenous language development in the Americas. An introduction and conclusion by Nancy H. Hornberger, "Indigenous Literacies in the Americas" and "Language Planning from the Bottom up," frame the volume and discuss the themes of indigenous literacies as grassroots language planning, as a door of opportunity for the marginalized, and as cultural expression and enrichment. Chapters are in sections on North America, MesoAmerica, and South America and include: "Teaching and Preserving Yup'ik Traditional Literacy" (Nastasia Wahlberg); "Ciulistet and the Curriculum of the Possible" (Jerry Lipka, Esther Ilutsik); "Reclaiming Navajo: Language Renewal in an American Indian Community School" (Galena Sells Dick, Teresa L. McCarty); "Literacy for What? Hualapai Literacy and Language Maintenance" (Lucille J. Watahomigie, Teresa L. McCarty); "Language Revitalization Efforts in the Pueblo de Cochiti: Becoming 'Literate' in an Oral Society" (Rebecca Benjamin, Regis Pecos, Mary Eunice Romero); "Language Preservation and Publishing" (H. Russell Bernard); "Experiences in the Development of a Writing System for Nuu Savi" (Josefa Leonarda Gonzalez Ventura); "Saving and Strengthening Indigenous Mexican Languages: The CELIAC Experience" (Jesus Salinas Pedraza); "Mayan Language Literacy in Guatemala: A Socio-historical Overview" (Julia Becker Richards, Michael Richards); "Quechua Literacy and Empowerment in Peru" (Nancy H. Hornberger); "Literacy and Modernization among the Quechua Speaking Population of Peru" (Juan Carlos Godenzzi); "An Experience of Indigenous Literacy in Peru" (Andres Chirinos); "Indigenous Politics and Native Language Literacies: Recent Shifts in Bilingual Education Policy and Practice in Ecuador" (Kendall A. King); "Attitudes of Teachers, Children and Parents towards Bilingual Intercultural Education" (Mercedes Cotacachi); "Bringing the Language Forward: School-Based Initiatives for Quechua Language Revitalization in Ecuador and Bolivia" (Nancy H. Hornberger, Kendall A. King); "To Guaranize: A Verb Actively Conjugated by the Bolivian Guaranis" (Luis Enrique Lopez); and an afterword "Local Literacies and Vernacular Literacies: Implications for National Literacy Policy" (Brian V. Street). Contains references in each chapter and an index.

ED419395
Language Policy and Ideological Paradox: A Comparative Look at Bilingual Intercultural Education Policy and Practice in Three Andean Countries.
Hornberger, Nancy H.
Publication Date: March 1998
Available from: EDRS Price MF01/PC02 Plus Postage.
Recent developments in language policy and educational reform in Peru, Ecuador, and Bolivia have opened new possibilities for indigenous languages and their speakers through bilingual intercultural education. Use of the term "intercultural" is examined in official policy documents and in short narratives about intercultural practice by indigenous and non-indigenous educators. Focus is on the paradox inherent in transforming a standardized education into a diversifying one, and constructing a national identity that is multilingual and multicultural. The discussion begins with a brief review of literature on language ideologies, multilingualism, and speech communities and of the sociolinguistic context of these three countries. It proceeds to an analysis of the "intercultural" emphasis in the countries' policies on bilingual intercultural education. Fifty-seven narratives of students in two course on bilingual education and language planning, taught by the author in Peru and Bolivia, are then examined. The narratives were one-page essays depicting an instance of intercultural interaction in an educational setting, focusing on urban-rural issues, student perceptions of cultural identity and interaction, role of cultural characteristics and sociocultural patterns, and their implications for development of a new educational ideology in the three countries. Contains 55 references.

ED428558
Bilingual Education and Social Change.
Bilingual Education and Bilingualism: 14.
Freeman, Rebecca D.
Publication Date: 1998
ISBN: 1-85359-418-0
Availability: Multilingual Matters Ltd., 325 Chestnut Street, Philadelphia, PA 19106; Tel: 800-821-8312 (Toll Free); Web site: http://www.multi.demon.co.uk/index.htm (paperback: ISBN-1-85359-418-0, $39.95; hardback: ISBN-1-85359-419-9, $95).
A case study is provided of dual-language planning and implementation at the Oyster Bilingual School, a successful Spanish-English public elementary school program in the District of Columbia. The first three chapters offer background information for understanding how the program interacts with the larger sociopolitical context of minority education in the United States. Chapters 4-10 provide a detailed analysis of how the alternative education system at Oyster Bilingual School challenges mainstream United States educational programs and practices that discriminate against minority students. The case study demonstrates how Oyster's dual-language policy, multicultural curriculum content, student-centered organization of classroom interaction, and performance-based assessment practices function together to provide more opportunities for language minority and language majority children than are traditionally available in mainstream schools, enabling both groups to participate and achieve equally at school. The final chapter looks beyond Oyster Bilingual school to what happens when students leave Oyster and what the program's goals are for other levels of society. Contains 46 references.

ED444151
English Unassailable but Unattainable: The Dilemma of Language Policy in South African Education.
Alexander, Neville
Publication Date: July 1999
Available from: EDRS Price MF01/PC01 Plus Postage.
Availability: Individual papers available online at http://www.nyu.edu/education/teachlearn/ifte/war99.htm.
This paper considers the concept of English as a global language in the context of South African educational policy. The paper first notes that the richer a country is the more possible it is for the rulers to take the social costs of language policy into account, i.e., the Netherlands and Canada can spend vast sums on different aspects of language policy, especially on the learning of foreign languages and on the accommodation of the languages of immigrant minorities, whereas most African countries are constrained to implement language in education policies that might seem irrational. It points out that for reasons that have to do with the modalities of colonial oppression in the 19th and 20th centuries, it seemed as though every newly independent African state was doomed to take the same language policy detour by accepting in practice the primacy of the ex-colonial language. It also discusses the existence of what has been called the "ESL industry" and its marginalizing effects on the African languages and the consequent disempowerment of the speakers of those languages. The paper then concentrates on the new language policy in education in South Africa and discusses the dilemmas and the problems to which this has given rise. It states that the most important features of the policy in regard to language medium is its commitment to an additive bilingualism approach as the desirable norm in all South African schools. The paper discusses the implications of this policy in detail. (Contains 31 references.)

ED449671
Language Policy and Pedagogy: Essays in Honor of A. Ronald Walton.
Lambert, Richard D., Ed.; Shohamy, Elana, Ed.
Publication Date: 2000
ISBN: 1-55619-763-2
Availability: John Benjamins North America, P.O. Box 27519, Philadelphia, PA 19118- 0519 ($65). Tel: 215-836-1200. ($65.00)
This edited volume brings together 14 diverse articles dealing with various aspects of language policy and pedagogy. Chapter titles include the following: "Language Practice, Language Ideology, and Language Policy" (Bernard Spolsky and Elana Shohamy); "The Status Agenda in Corpus Planning" (Joshua A. Fishman); "The Way Ahead: European Recommendations for Language Teaching Policy Development into the Next Century" (J.L.M. Trim); "The Winds of Change in Foreign Language Instruction" (Richard D. Lambert); "Foreign Language and Area Studies through Title VI: Assessing Supply and Demand" (Gilbert W. Merkx); "System III: The Future of Language Learning in the United States" (Richard D. Brecht and A. Ronald Walton); "An Early Start for Foreign Languages (but not English) in the Netherlands" (Kees de Bot); "Elementary School Immersion in Less Commonly Taught Languages" (Myriam Met); "Forging a Link: Tapping the National Heritage Language Resources in the United States" (Xueying Wang); "Focus on Form in Task-Based Language Teaching" (Michael H. Long); "Language Learning and Intercultural Competence" (Ross Steele); "Acquired Culture in the Japanese Language Classroom" (Eleanor H. Jorden); "Performed Culture: Learning To Participate in Another Culture" (Galal Walker); "What Do They Do? Activities of Students during Study Abroad" (Ralph B. Ginsberg and Laura Miller). References are found at the end of each chapter. A subject index is included.

EJ301990
Mother Tongue, Language Policy and Education.
Szepe, Gyorgy
Prospects: Quarterly Review of Education, v14 n1 p63-73 1984
It is of prime importance that children begin their education in their mother tongue, as this will provide the optimum conditions for the development of the personality and will improve their social chances. Mother-tongue education is beginning to be accepted in a number of European countries.

EJ387333
The Role and Use of Educational Theory in Formulating Language Policy.
Cummins, Jim
TESL Canada Journal, v5 n2 p11-19 Mar 1988
Discusses the relationship between research, theory, and policy in language policy formulation in the context of a "conflict" paradigm. In bilingual programs in the United States and Canada, the sociological context of the debate plays a major role in determining the choice of issues to investigate.

EJ387334
Native Languages and the Role of Research in Formulating Language Policy.
Lickers, Keith
TESL Canada Journal, v5 n2 p20-26 Mar 1988
Supports the theory of language policy formulation in a "conflict" paradigm (involving value, resources, and power) with a case example of the development of Ontario's Native language policy. Research and theory were applied to policy formulation when there was significant consensus regarding both societal and educational goals.

EJ387335
Educational Research and Theory in Language Policy: ESL in Quebec Schools.
Lightbown, Patsy M.
TESL Canada Journal, v5 n2 p27-32 Mar 1988
Analyzes the social and educational objectives for teaching English as a second language in Quebec schools. Further research is needed about appropriate teaching methods and appropriate ages for beginning instruction. The sociopolitical context of Quebec must be considered to assign highest priority to developing students' native languages.

EJ388967
Language Planning Orientations and Bilingual Education in Peru.
Hornberger, Nancy H.
Language Problems and Language Planning, v12 n1 p14-29 Spr 1988
Considers the status and corpus planning aspects of three of Peru's Quechua policies in light of the language planning orientations of language-as-problem, language-as-right, and language-as-resource. Current Quechua/Spanish bilingual education recognizes the rights of Quechua speakers and the role of the language as a national resource.

EJ399195
Maori Bilingual Education and Language Revitalisation.
Spolsky, Bernard
Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, v10 n2 p89-106 1989
Describes several preschool, elementary, and high school Maori immersion and bilingual programs in New Zealand, focusing on how the programs define and establish Maori space in the schools, local and tribal concerns, and the basis for the revitalization of the language. (29 references)

EJ399199
Can Peru's Rural Schools Be Agents for Quechua Language Maintenance?
Hornberger, Nancy H.
Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, v10 n2 p145-59 1989
Draws on sociolinguistic literature and on an ethnographic study of language use and bilingual education in Quechua-speaking rural communities of Puno. Considers the roles of both language planning and the schools in achieving language maintenance for Quechua. (35 references)

EJ407079
The Controversy over Teaching Medium in Hong Kong.
Yau, Man-Siu
Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, v10 n4 p279-95 1989
Analyzes a language plan proposed by the Hong Kong government to promote Chinese as the medium of instruction in the education system. A brief history of the past language situation is provided, and an outline of the evolution of the proposed plan is highlighted. (31 references)

EJ407095
The Place of Arabic in Language Education and Language Planning in Nigeria.
Akinnaso, F. Niyi; Ogunbiyi, Isaac A.
Language Problems and Language Planning, v14 n1 p1-19 Spr 1990
Examines the place of Arabic in language education and language planning activities in Nigeria, highlighting its uses from the nineteenth century to present, methods and content of Arabic education, contributions to historical documentation in pre-colonial Nigeria and lexical expansion of Nigerian languages, and decline in its status and role. (34 references)

EJ408649
Language in Education Planning.
Ingram, D. E.
Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, v10 p53-78 1989
Language-in-education planning is the field that exists between language policy making and the classroom curriculum. A survey of language-in-education planning in the 1980s focuses only on that part of language-in-education policy concerned with foreign language teaching and learning and areas of literacy and bilingual education. (118 references)

EJ481608
Language-in-Education Policy and Planning.
Paulston, Christina Bratt; McLaughlin, Susanne
Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, v14 p53-81 1993-94
ISSN: 0267-1905
A descriptive review of research on language-in-education policy and planning is offered. It covers national languages (North America, Southern Africa, Central Asia); minority languages (New Zealand, North America); European minority languages and language policies in the European Community; testing and evaluation; teacher education; and literacy. (Contains 113 references.)

EJ488055
Literacy and Language Planning.
Hornberger, Nancy H.
Language and Education, v8 n1-2 p75-86 1994
ISSN: 0950-0782
A framework for language planning categorizes 22 language planning goals in terms of the intersections between 3 types (status, corpus, and acquisition) and 2 approaches (policy and cultivation) of language planning. The model helps literacy developers to answer the question of which literacies to develop for what purpose.

EJ499399
Language Planning Considerations in Indigenous Communities.
Ruiz, Richard
Bilingual Research Journal, v19 n1 p71-81 Win 1995
Examines federally funded bilingual education programs for American Indians and Alaska Natives from a language planning perspective. It is argued that federal programs represent an exoglossic (externally orientated) policy that can contribute to language loss. Indigenous communities need to develop endoglossic (community-orientated) policies that foster linguistic and cultural maintenance. (23 references)

EJ535919
Unpeeling the Onion: Language Planning and Policy and the ELT Professional.
Ricento, Thomas K.; Hornberger, Nancy H.
TESOL Quarterly, v30 n3 p401-27 Aut 1996
ISSN: 0039-8322
Examines the processes involved in language planning and policy and the role of English language teaching professionals in deciding and promoting language policies as well as how these professionals affect changes in their local contexts. Conclusions indicate that linguistic self-determinism is viable and desirable because it promotes social equity and fosters diversity. (94 references)

EJ535926
Dual-Language Planning at Oyster Bilingual School: "It's Much More Than Language."
Freeman, Rebecca D.
TESOL Quarterly, v30 n3 p557-82 Aut 1996
ISSN: 0039-8322
Describes how Oyster Bilingual School's (Washington, DC) two-way Spanish-English language plan functions in its sociopolitical context. It is noted that this plan is part of a larger identity plan aiming to promote social change by socializing children differently from the way they are socialized in mainstream US educational discourse. (46 references)

EJ541121
Language Revitalisation in the Andes: Can the Schools Reverse Language Shift?
Hornberger, Nancy H.; King, Kendall A.
Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, v17 n6 p427-41 1996
ISSN: 0143-4632
Examines two initiatives to revitalize Quechua, the language of the Incas: Bolivia's 1994 reform incorporating the provision of bilingual intercultural education; and a community-based effort to incorporate Quichua as a second language instruction in a school in Ecuador. Points out that census records and sociolinguistic studies document a continuous cross-generational shift from Quechua to Spanish. (28 references)

EJ575499
Language Policy, Language Education, Language Rights: Indigenous, Immigrant, and International Perspectives.
Hornberger, Nancy H.
Language in Society, v27 n4 p439-58 Dec 1998
ISSN: 0047-4045
Discusses cases of indigenous/immigrant languages that are in danger of disappearing because they are not being transmitted to the next generation, including languages of South America, South Africa, Southeast Asia, Wales, New Zealand, Turkey, and native languages of California. Such cases provide evidence that language policy and education serve as vehicles for promoting the languages and the rights of their speakers.

EJ601639
Language Policy and Planning.
Takala, Sauli; Sajavaara, Kari
Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, v20 p129-46 2000
ISSN: 0267-1905
Focuses on foreign language planning, or the planned changes in foreign language instructional systems and in uses of languages in different social contexts with special reference to the Nordic and Baltic countries. Special attention is given to the relationship between language planning and evaluation.

EJ605570
Over 30 Years of Language-in-Education Policy and Planning: Potter Thomas Bilingual School in Philadelphia.
Cahnmann, Melisa
Bilingual Research Journal, v22 n1 p65-81 Win 1998
ISSN: 1523-5882
Changes in politics, the economy, demographics, and local leadership all led to the establishment of the Potter Thomas Bilingual School in Philadelphia in 1969. Describes the school's history; how it created, implemented, and sustained language policies within its personnel, curriculum, evaluation, and community policies; and present and future challenges to the school's bilingual education program. (Contains 38 references.)

c) Language policy and planning in the United States

ED231220
Exploring Strategies for Developing a Cohesive National Direction toward Language Education in the United States.
Tucker, G. Richard; And Others
Publication Date: 1983
Available from: EDRS Price MF01/PC02 Plus Postage.
Availability: National Clearinghouse for Bilingual Education, 1555 Wilson Boulevard, Suite 605, Rosslyn, VA 22209 ($3.90).
The papers focus on the desirability, feasibility, and importance of proposing and beginning to implement a language agenda for all residents of the United States. After an introductory synthesis by G. R. Tucker, the following papers are presented: (1) "Matching Appropriate Actions to Specific Linguistic Inadequacies," by R. E. Thompson; (2) "An Unprecedented Act of Fusion," by R. I. Brod; (3) "An Insomniac's Solution to the Problem of National Language Policy," by J. Levy; (4) "Consolidating Mutual Strengths," by V. da Mota; and (5) "The Role of Language Study in Bilingual Education," by J. E. Alatis. The following themes are developed: (1) the need to examine the personal, economic and social factors that affect the learning and use of language in diverse settings; (2) the need to change public attitudes toward promotion of bilingualism, language study, and public policy in the domain of bilingual education and second language learning; (3) the need to conduct a public awareness or consciousness-raising campaign; (4) the necessity of cooperation and collaboration among the various professional organizations; and (5) the need for all to become activists at the local level.

ED268527
Toward a National Public Policy on Language.
Smitherman, Geneva
Publication Date: March 1986
Available from: EDRS Price MF01/PC01 Plus Postage.
Speech, language, and composition professionals should take a leadership role in working toward a national public policy on language. The declining rates of literacy and educational achievement in AfroAmerican communities serve as evidence that such a policy is needed. However, the policy would govern language teaching and language use throughout the United States and would ultimately be beneficial to all communities. Such a policy would (1) reinforce the need for and teaching of standard American English, (2) promote the legitimacy of mother tongue languages and dialects, and (3) promote the acquisition of one or more foreign languages, preferably those spoken in the third world, because of their widespread use in this hemisphere. Steps that speech, language, and composition professionals can take in making such a policy a reality include aligning with political progressives in demanding restoration of budget cuts from education and other domestic programs, conducting language awareness campaigns needed to accompany the movement for a language policy, and working with the public schools to develop uniform standards and guidelines for linguistic performance.

ED287311
The "English-Only" Movement: A Selected Bibliography.
Guerena, Salvador
Publication Date: 1987
Available from: EDRS Price MF01/PC01 Plus Postage.
Over 200 news items, journal articles, position papers, and other citations concerning the issue of English as the official language of the United States are included in this bibliography. While information on state and federal legislative efforts is presented, testimony of congressional hearings is kept to a minimum, as are unpublished manuscripts. A list of key organizations in the debate, with addresses, is included.

ED295464
English Only Movement: Confrontation with Language Diversity.
Ovando, Carlos J.
Publication Date: April 30, 1988
Available from: EDRS Price MF01/PC02 Plus Postage.
A discussion of the movement to make English the only official language in the United States' multilingual society examines the nature and scope of the movement and draws instructional and language policy implications for teaching situations involving language-minority populations. It draws a relationship between the politics of language diversity and the cognitive, linguistic, and cultural factors associated with the academic movement of language-minority students. The English-only movement and its media coverage are analyzed, and research literature on the effectiveness of use of the home language for instruction is reviewed. It is concluded that the English language, as any other, is capable of coexisting with other languages and cultures, and that such coexistence has greatly enriched the English language and the human experience. It is noted that in countries where bilingualism has become associated with a problem, the countries have deep and complex sociocultural, political, and religious histories that have led to mutual hostilities among language groups. It is further suggested that the conceptual, instructional, and curricular tools for assuring that language diversity is used to enrich and not detract from the society are now available. Forty-three endnotes are provided.

ED312896
Developing a Language Competent American Society: The Role of Language Planning.
Tucker, G. Richard
Publication Date: May 1989
Available from: EDRS Price MF01/PC01 Plus Postage.
Increasingly, applied linguists have been working with counterpart teachers who are subject-matter specialists to develop innovative programs to integrate the teaching of language and content. In some places, integration of language and content instruction involves implementation of two-way bilingual (interlocking) immersion programs. Such work falls into the general rubric of language (education) policy or planning. The role of language in education in several disparate settings is illustrated by the adoption of different policies and practices. In the People's Republic of China, English is taught non-intensively as a foreign language as part of the regular middle school curriculum, followed by more intensive English for special purposes for those with a demonstrable need for further study in English. Nigeria provides transitional bilingual education with a limited maintenance component. The Philippines offers full bilingual education with a complete integration of language and content instruction throughout education cycles. The process by which a country chooses an appropriate model represents educational language planning. This process has relevance for policy formation in the United States.

ED316019
Official Languages in the United States: Policies, Polemics, and Politics.
Macias, Reynaldo F.
Publication Date: April 25, 1987
Available from: EDRS Price MF01/PC01 Plus Postage.
Availability: Tomas Rivera Center, 710 N. College Ave., Claremont, CA 91711 ($2.00).
A framework for discussing the issues associated with language policy in the United States is offered, highlighting the history of the country's diverse language groups and language policies. It is proposed that language politics, and often the policies themselves, reflect the social relations between groups within a society. The history of language groups looks at the distribution of major colonial languages, the influx of immigrant languages, and the incorporation of indigenous populations. Current and projected language diversity is examined. Two periods in the history of language policy are delineated, the first dating from the founding of the United States through the first quarter of the 20th century and the second from the end of the first quarter to the present day. Tolerance-oriented and oppression-oriented policies in the first period and their results are discussed. More restrictive language policies are also examined. Issues in the current debate over an official language are noted, including the constitutionality of proclaiming English as the official language, concern for the public status of non-English languages and their promotion, and interpretation of status legislation. Three winning essays in a 1987 contest on the importance of being bilingual are appended.

ED318298
The Education Requirement of the U.S. Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986: A Case Study of Ineffective Language Planning.
Huss, Susan
Publication Date: 1989
Available from: EDRS Price MF01/PC02 Plus Postage.
An analysis of the Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986 (IRCA), which requires basic English language proficiency and knowledge of United States history and civics of illegal aliens seeking permanent residency status, suggests that the Act is an example of poor language planning. The analysis has three components. First, the legalization requirements in Title II, are discussed and the education requirement is explained in the context of IRCA's legislative history. A profile of the typical undocumented resident in the United States who is affected by IRCA is then presented, and the effect of the education requirement on institutions that offer English and citizenship courses for foreign-born residents is examined. Finally, the IRCA education requirement is discussed within the context of language planning, and it is argued that while the IRCA education requirement appears to be an attempt at language acquisition planning, it is nothing but a token measure in the legalization process enacted because the cost of deporting millions of illegal aliens is prohibitive. Further, the enforcement of the requirement is interpreted as a statement of the United States mainstream society belief that English must be upheld as a symbol of a core American culture. An 18-item bibliography is included.

ED321554
New Beginnings for Language Policy: Australia and the United States.
Baldauf, Richard B., Jr.
Publication Date: 1990
Available from: EDRS Price MF01/PC01 Plus Postage.
The following similarities exist between the language situations of the United States and Australia: (1) both countries have developed and prospered through overseas immigration; (2) until recently, neither country has had a "de jure" official language, only a "de facto" one built around English; (3) in both countries indigenous languages have been badly neglected; and (4) the changing linguistic makeup of both countries has recently created pressures for reappraisal of language policy development. However, the two countries have taken different approaches to multilingualism and language policy development, due to the following dissimilarities: ethnic revival affected Australia and the U.S. at different stages of their development; the United States War of Independence symbolizes its national unity and identity, while the idea of Australia as a nation is recent; Australia has great language diversity, with none predominant in any community; and decision-making is more centralized in education and related domains in Australia. The 1980s have seen new beginnings for language policy in both countries. The United States has been examining either/or exclusive policies (English-speaking vs. foreign-speaking) while Australia has embarked on an inclusive multicultural policy. Political influences will shape the final policies. In Australia, a united effort of ethnic communities and language professionals has had an important impact on policy development.

ED372594
English Plus: Issues in Bilingual Education.
Cazden, Courtney B., Ed.; Snow, Catherine E., Ed.
American Academy of Political and Social Science Annals, v508 Mar 1990
ISSN: 0002-7162
Availability: Sage Publications, Inc., 2111 West Hillcrest Drive, Newbury Park, CA 91320.
The special issue of the journal is devoted to a variety of historical, educational, and policy issues arising in the debate over establishing English as the single official language of the United States. Articles on this topic include: "Bilingual Education and English-Only: A Language Planning Framework" (Nancy H. Hornberger); "Historical Legacies: 1840-1920" (Joel Perlmann); "Understanding Educational Policies in Multilingual States" (Christina Bratt Paulston); "The Position of U.S. English on Bilingual Education" (Gary Imhoff); "Official English: A False Policy Issue" (Arturo Madrid); "The Past and Future Directions of Federal Bilingual-Education Policy" (James J. Lyons); "Research, Politics, and Bilingual Education" (Walter G. Secada); "Reviewing Bilingual-Education Research for Congress" (Frederick Mulhauser); "Qualified Public Support for Bilingual Education: Some Policy Implications" (Leonie Huddy, Davis O. Sears); "California Proposition 63: Language Attitudes Reflected in the Public Debate" (Susannah D. A. MacKaye); "The Newton Alternative to Bilingual Education" (Rosalie Pedalino Porter); "A Spanish-English Dual-Language Program in New York City" (Sidney H. Morison); and "Rock Point, a Navajo Way To Go to School: A Valediction" (Agnes Holm, Wayne Holm).

ED373532
Perspectives on Official English. The Campaign for English as the Official Language of the USA.
Adams, Karen L., Ed.; Brink, Daniel T., Ed.
Publication Date: 1990
ISBN: 3-11-012325-8
Availability: Walter de Gruyter & Co., 200 Saw Mill River Rd., Hawthorne, NY 10532.
Essays on the campaign to establish English as the United States' official language include: "Official Languages and Language Planning" (Richard Ruiz); "Una lingua, una patria?: Is Monolingualism Beneficial or Harmful to a Nation's Unity?" (David F. Marshall and Roseann D. Gonzalez); "Canadian Perspectives on Official English" (Joseph E. Magnet); "Language Policy and Linguistic Tolerance in Ireland" (Alan Hudson-Edwards); "Languae Policies in Western Europe and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics" (Leslie J. Limage); "The Legislation of Bahasa Malaysia as the Official Language of Malaysia" (William G. Davey); "English - The Official Language of California, 1983-1988" (Stanley Diamond); "Testimony Before the State Legislature on California Proposition 63" (Geoffrey Nunberg); "Voting Rights, Liberal Voters and the Official English Movement: An Analysis of Campaign Rhetoric in San Francisco's Proposition 'O'" (Kathryn A. Woolard); "The Popularity of California's Proposition 63: An Analysis" (Connie Dyste); "The Official English Movement in Florida" (Max J. Castro, Margaret Haun, and Ana Roca); "Who Supports Official English and Why?: The Influence of Social Variables and Questionnaire Methodology" (Ana Celia Zentella); "Ethnic and Linguistic Minorities in the Southwest: An Overview" (Karen L. Adams); "Official English and the Learning of English" (Jon Amastae); "On the English Proficiency Act" (The Honorable Jeff Bingaman); "The Official English Movement and the Role of First Languages" (Elizabeth A. Brandt); "Official English and the Urge to Legislate" (Betty Lou Dubois); "The Navajo Language Today" (AnCita Benally and T. L. McCarty); "American Indian Language Policy" (Ofelia Zepeda); "Legal Background and History of the English Language Movement" (Barnaby W. Zall and Sharon McCloe Stein); "Is Language Choice a Constitutional Right?: Outline of a Constitutional Analysis" (James Weinstein); "Bilingualism and the Constitution" (John Trasvina); "Language and the Law in the Classroom: Bilingual Education and the Official English Initiative" (Rachel F. Moran); "Language Rights as Collective Rights" (Joseph E. Magnet); and "On Walling In and Walling Out" (The Honorable Noel Fidel). Six appendices covering amendments, initiaties, and resolutions; the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, article VIII; congressional hearings; the New Mexico state Constitution--Articles XII, XX; and representitive data are included.

ED377708
English Only, the Debate: A Selective & Partially Annotated Bibliography.
Gallegos, Bee
Publication Date: 1994
Available from: EDRS Price MF01/PC05 Plus Postage.
The bibliography contains over 1,000 citations of books, ERIC documents, government documents, journals, magazine articles, newspaper articles, unpublished works, and videotape recordings on the debate over establishment of English as the single official language of the United States. Citations are listed alphabetically by author within each of the above categories. All contain basic bibliographic information: author(s); publication date; title; pagination (when applicable); and organizational source or publisher. Some are annotated.

ED422715
Language and Politics in the United States and Canada: Myths and Realities.
Ricento, Thomas, Ed.; Burnaby, Barbara, Ed.
Publication Date: 1998
ISBN: 0-8058-2839-7
Availability: Lawrence Erlbaum and Associates, Publishers, 10 Industrial Ave., Mahwah, NJ 07430 (paperback: ISBN-0-8058-2839-7; hardcover: ISBN-0-8058-2838-9).
This collection includes the following essays on language and politics in North America: "Respecting the Citizens: Reflections on Language Policy in Canada and the United States" (Colin H. Williams); "The Politics of Language in Canada and the United States: Explaining the Differences" (Ronald Schmidt, Sr.); "Demographic Considerations in Canadian Language Policy" (Roderic Beaujot); "National Language Policy in the United States" (Thomas Ricento); "Life on the Edge: Canada's Aboriginal Languages under Official Bilingualism" (Mark Fettes); "Endangered Native American Languages: What Is To Be Done, and Why?" (James Crawford); "Legal Implications of the Official English Declaration" (Susan Miner); "Language Rights Theory in Canadian Perspective" (Joseph Eliot Magnet); "The Imposition of World War I Era English-Only Policies and the Fate of German in North America" (Terrence G. Wiley); "ESL Policy in Canada and the United States: Basis for Comparison" (Barbara Burnaby); "French-Language Services in Ontario: A Policy of 'Overly Prudent Gradualism'?" (Don Cartwright); "Quebec, Canada, and the United States: Social reality and Language Rights" (Calvin Veltman); "Partitioning by Language: Whose Rights Are Threatened?" (Thomas Ricento); and "Conclusion: Myths and Realities" (Barbara Burnaby, Thomas Ricento).

ED423706
The American Bilingual Tradition. Language in Education:
Theory and Practice No. 88.
Kloss, Heinz
Publication Date: 1998
ISBN: 1887744-02-9
Available from: EDRS Price MF02/PC20 Plus Postage.
Availability: Delta Systems Co., Inc., 1400 Miller Parkway, McHenry, IL 60050 ($22.95).
The history of language policy in the United States is explored, focusing on the rights of language minorities. The first chapter presents constitutional and ethnolinguistic background information and gives an overview of the main categories of language rights. Chapter two describes the extent to which the federal government has or has not made use of and promoted languages other than English. The third chapter outlines American achievements in toleration-oriented minority rights, and the fourth examines minority rights extended to promote language use among post-independence immigrant groups. Chapters five through eight describe the promotive language rights granted in various geographic areas, including mainland United States (large old- settler groups and smaller groups of original settlers), outlying areas that became states, and overseas possessions that did not attain statehood. Contents are indexed. (Contains 694 references.)

ED427326
English-Only Movement: Its Consequences on the Education of Language Minority Children. ERIC Digest.
Lu, Mei-Yu
Publication Date: 1998
Available from: EDRS Price MF01/PC01 Plus Postage.
Availability: ERIC Clearinghouse on Reading, English, and Communication, Indiana University, 2805 E. 10th Street, Suite 150, Bloomington, IN 47408-2698; Tel: 800- 759-4723 (Toll Free).
Also available online: http://www.ed.gov/databases/ERIC_Digests/ed427326.html
Noting that the English-Only movement (which advocates that English be the official and only language used in the United States) dramatically influences the lives of language minority children, this Digest first examines the ideologies undergirding the English-Only movement. It then reviews the consequences of imposing this legislation on the language minority population. Next, the Digest presents a summary of research findings on the importance of mother tongue maintenance among language minority children. The Digest concludes by exploring the implications of the English-Only movement on equality and equity education for all children.

ED436092
Sociopolitical Perspectives on Language Policy and Planning in the USA.
Studies in Bilingualism, Volume 16.
Huebner, Thom, Ed.; Davis, Kathryn A., Ed.
Publication Date: 1999
ISBN: 1-55619-735-7
ISSN: 0928-1533
Availability: John Benjamins North America, 821 Bethleham Pike, Erdenheim, PA 19118-0519 ($90). Tel: 800-562-5666 (Toll Free).
This monograph includes a collection of papers that are an outgrowth of a colloquium on socio-political dimensions of language policy and language planning held at the 1997 American Association of Applied Linguistics Conference. Section 1, "Language Policy/Planning Frameworks," includes: (1) "Sociopolitical Perspectives on Language Policy, Politics, and Praxis" (Thom Huebner); (2) "Comparative Historical Analysis of U.S. Language Policy and Language Planning: Extending the Foundations" (Terrence G. Wiley); (3) "The Language of Policy: What Sort of Policy Making Is the Officialization of English in the United States?" (Joseph Lo Bianco); (4) "The Sociopolitical Dynamics of Indigenous Language Maintenance and Loss: A Framework for Language Policy and Planning" (Kathryn A. Davis); and (5) "Culture, Discourse, and Indigenous Epistemology: Transcending Current Models in Language Planning and Policy" (Karen A. Watson-Gegeo and David W. Gegeo). Section 2, "Policy and Politics," includes: (6) "Looking at Federal Education Legislation from a Language Policy/Planning Perspective" (Donna Christian); (7) "Public Perceptions of Official English/English Only: Framing the Debate in Arizona" (Mary Carol Combs); (8) "Language Policy/Planning and U.S. Colonialism: The Puerto Rican Thorn in English-Only's Side" (Ana Celia Zentella); (9) "U.S. Language Planning and Policies for Social Dialect Speakers" (Marcyliena Morgan); (10) "The Politics of Sign Language: Language Planning for Deaf Americans" (Michael Strong); (11) "Language Varieties and Language Policy: The Appreciation of Pidgin" (Laiana Wong); (12) "(Mis)Educating Mexican Americans through Language" (Lilia I. Bartolome and Donaldo Macedo); and (13) "Language and Equality: Ideological and Structural Constraints in Foreign Language Education in the U.S." (Lourdes Ortega). Section 3, "Praxis," includes: (14) "The Role of Language and Culture in Teaching Reading: Language Policy and Planning for Diverse Populations" (Angela Eunice Rickford); (15) "Foreign Language Policy and Planning in Higher Education: The Case of the State of Florida" (Ana Roca); (16) "Hawaiian Language Regenesis: Planning for Intergenerational Use of Hawaiian Beyond the School" (Sam No'eau Warner); (17) "From Developing One's Voice to Making Oneself Heard: Affecting Language Policy from the Bottom Up" (Klaudia M. Rivera); and (18) "The Role of Social Networks and the Strength of Weak Ties in Changing Language Policy: Gender Neutralization in American English" (Patricia C. Nichols). (All papers contain references.)

ED443282
Approaching Multilingualism in Japan and the United States.
Clankie, Shawn M.
Language and Culture Studies Series, 42 p15-33 2000
Available from: EDRS Price MF01/PC01 Plus Postage.
This paper considers how multilingualism is approached in both Japan and the United States by considering the position and roles of the government, schools, and public. There exists the perception in countries where monolingualism is considered the norm that bilingualism, and certainly multilingualism, are problematic. Multilingualism in a monolingual country is frequently seen as a threat to the established monolingual and monocultural way of life. While Japan and the United States are typical of monolinguistically-dominated societies, and some similar attitudes prevail in both countries, their approaches to dealing with multilingualism are vastly different. In Japan and the United States, there are prevailing attitudes that for speakers of the dominant languages--Japanese and English respectively--there is no need to learn another language, and that all others living in the countries should learn to speak the primary language. Yet both countries are far more linguistically diverse than the typical lay person or government official in either country realizes. This is a more recent phenomenon in Japan, but in America, significant multilingualism goes back to the founding of the first colonies. Multilingualism has been unavoidable in a country comprised of immigrants from across the world. It is concluded that in both countries multilingualism is not a threat, but that narrow- mindedness and the failure to look beyond ones own borders are far greater problems. (Contains 17 references.)

EJ302000
Needed: A New Language Policy in the U.S.
Cordasco, Francesco; Roederer, Louis
USA Today, v113 n2470 p67-69 Jul 1984
American schools have a long way to go to catch up with the levels attained in most European schools, where students reach near fluency in English besides learning another foreign language or two. English has become a world language; however, there is still a need for foreign languages to be taught.

EJ373239
Official English or English Only.
Stalker, James C.
English Journal, v77 n3 p18-23 Mar 1988
Traces the historical background of language diversity in the United States. Argues that the desire to maintain English as the common language of the United States will be brought about more effectively through the American tradition of persuasion and democracy than through linguistic legislation.

EJ373240
The English Language Amendment: Examining Myths.
Gonzalez, Roseann Duenas; And Others
English Journal, v77 n3 p24-30 Mar 1988
Claims three of the arguments advocated by proponents of the English Language Amendment (ELA) are myths, including (1) linguistic diversity causes political conflict; (2) an official language determines national unity; and (3) bilingual education decelerates the entrance of non-English speakers into the American mainstream. Argues that the ELA is politically oppressive.

EJ384113
Language Teaching in Nativist Times: A Need for Sociopolitical Awareness.
McKay, Sandra Lee; Wong, Sau-Ling Cynthia
Modern Language Journal, v72 n4 p379-88 Win 1988
Outlines a historical context for the nativist ideology of the English-only movement in the United States, and the movement's effect on language teaching. A survey of journal contents of TESOL Quarterly, Modern Language Journal, and Foreign Language Annals from 1974-1987 identifying eight categories of articles checked particularly for sociopolitical awareness.

EJ387328
Language Planning and Policy Development for Court Interpretation Services in the United States.
Schweda-Nicholson, Nancy
Language Problems and Language Planning, v10 n2 p140-57 Sum 1986
Chronicles the history of federal laws governing use of court interpreters, focusing on the Court Interpreters Act of 1978. The Spanish/English Federal Court Interpreter Certification Examination is discussed, and problems in state court interpreter selection, policy formation, and improvement of interpreting quality are presented.

EJ404026
The Official-Language Movement in the United States: Contexts, Issues, and Activities.
Amorose, Thomas
Language Problems and Language Planning, v13 n3 p264-79 Fall 1989
Central concerns in the movement to make English the official language of the United States are reviewed, publications and activities of two major organizations supporting it are compared, and basic assumptions and directions of the movement are criticized. (21 references)

EJ409776
Language Politics and American Identity.
Citrin, Jack
Public Interest, n99 p96-109 Spr 1990
Reviews the development of the English Only movement and its negative effects on linguistic minorities. Suggests the following components of a national language policy: abandon divisive "Official English" measures; encourage transitional bilingual education; expand existing adult education with federal support; and revitalize the concept of the "melting pot" process of cultural assimilation.

EJ420157
The Language-Planning Effect of Newspaper Editorial Policy: Gender Differences in The Washington Post.
Fasold, Ralph; And Others
Language in Society, v19 n4 p521-39 Dec 1990
ISSN: 0047-4045
Examines the effect of general statements against sexist usage in the style manual for "The Washington Post." Analysis is provided of a minor usage pattern that was not the subject of an explicit rule: the difference in the use of middle initials in references to men and to women.

EJ453018
African Americans and "English Only".
Smitherman, Geneva
Language Problems and Language Planning, v16 n3 p235-48 Fall 1992
The historical struggle of African Americans, and around Black English Vernacular in particular, suggests that African Americans can be a significant force in the struggle for minority language rights. The African-American perspective on "English Only" is explored through a historical overview and a public-opinion survey of African Americans in major cities. (22 references)

EJ481611
Language Policy and Planning in the U.S.
Ruiz, Richard
Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, v14 p111-25 1993-94
ISSN: 0267-1905
A discussion of U.S. language policy formation and planning covers the following: the literacy crisis, education of language minority populations, "official" English movement, gender neutrality, federal legislation, and emerging issues such as the status of Puerto Rico, American Indian languages, foreign language education, and the education of deaf students. (Contains 42 references.)

EJ535924
English-Only and Standard English Ideologies in the U.S.
Wiley, Terrence G.; Lukes, Marguerite
TESOL Quarterly, v30 n3 p511-35 Aut 1996
ISSN: 0039-8322
Compares the ideology of English monolingualism with a standard language ideology used to position speakers of different varieties of the same language within a social hierarchy. The article discusses the connection between assumptions underlying linguistic ideologies and other social ideologies related to individualism and social mobility. (104 references)

EJ535926
Dual-Language Planning at Oyster Bilingual School: "It's Much More Than Language."
Freeman, Rebecca D.
TESOL Quarterly, v30 n3 p557-82 Aut 1996
ISSN: 0039-8322
Describes how Oyster Bilingual School's (Washington, DC) two-way Spanish-English language plan functions in its sociopolitical context. It is noted that this plan is part of a larger identity plan aiming to promote social change by socializing children differently from the way they are socialized in mainstream US educational discourse. (46 references)

EJ535927
Institutional Policies and Language Minority Students: Institutional Policies and Language Minority Students in the U.S. and Institutional Responses: Empowering Minority Children.
Wong, Shelley D.; Lo Bianco, Joseph
TESOL Quarterly, v30 n3 p583-90 Aut 1996
ISSN: 0039-8322
Presents the viewpoints of two teacher educators--one American and one Australian--on how institutional policies can address the needs of language minority students. One viewpoint stresses the need for teachers of English as a Second Language (ESL) to organize and support each other. The other emphasizes the value of constructing an interdependence between learning of ESL and minority children's knowledge. (18 references)

EJ568736
An Analysis of Attitudes Toward Spanish as Expressed in "US ENGLISH Update." Presidential Address.
Gynan, Shaw N.
Southwest Journal of Linguistics, v12 n1-2 p1-37 1993
ISSN: 0737-4143
Availability: Linguistics Association of the Southwest, Texas A&M University, Commerce, TX 75429-3011.
Analysis of the first 10 years of the newsletter, "US ENGLISH Update," reveals that its main focus is restricting the use of Spanish in the United States out of fear for the status of English. This policy objective is rooted in language attitudes based on impressions and hearsay. It blames bilingual education for an unwillingness of Spanish speakers to learn English.

EJ568739
From Goya Portraits to Goya Beans: Elite Traditions and Popular Streams in U.S. Spanish Language Policy.
Garcia, Ofelia
Southwest Journal of Linguistics, v12 n1-2 p69-86 1993
ISSN: 0737-4143
Identifies the unwritten Spanish language policy in the United States by historically analyzing the different roles that Spanish has had throughout U.S. history. The paper shows how Spanish has been used for the benefit of the Spanish- and English-speaking elite but restricted (or forbidden) as a socioeconomic tool and symbol of identity for less fortunate U.S. Latinos.

EJ589658
Language Policy.
Nicholson, Nancy Schweda
Language Problems and Language Planning, v23 n1 p37-63 Spr 1999
ISSN: 0272-2690
Provides a decade-long historical perspective on language planning efforts and policy development in the area of interpretation services at the Executive Office for Immigration Review.

EJ605552
Language Wars: The Ideological Dimensions of the Debates on Bilingual Education.
Galindo, Rene
Bilingual Research Journal, v21 n2-3 p163-201 Spr-Sum 1997
A conceptual framework was developed to analyze ideological debates about bilingual education in California and Colorado. A discussion of language as problem, as resource, and as right reveals how viewing Spanish as a problem enables devaluation of bilingualism and the linguistic capital of Latino immigrants, and the displacement of Latino parents from participation in their children's education. (Contains 58 references.)

EJ605564
Title VIIESEA: The Ambivalence of Language Policy in the United States.
Padilla, Raymond V.
Bilingual Research Journal, v22 n1 piii-viii Win 1998
Reflects on the public debates over bilingual education since passage of the Bilingual Education Act 30 years ago. Focuses on ambivalence toward bilingual education and bilingualism, demonstrated by the failure of colleges and universities to train adequate numbers of qualified bilingual teachers and by those who value learning a "foreign" language but not maintaining a non-English mother tongue.

d) Language policy and planning in other countries and regions

ED263761
Language Policy in Canada: Current Issues. A Selection of the Proceedings of the Papers Dealing with Language Policy Issues in Canada at the Conference "Language Policy and Social Problems"
Cobarrubias, Juan, Ed.
Publication Date: 1985
ISBN: 2-89219-159-9
Available from: EDRS Price MF01/PC04 Plus Postage.
The papers related to Canadian language policy at an international conference are presented: "Language Policy in Canada: Current Issues" (Juan Cobarrubias); "Multiculturalism and Language Policy in Canada" (Jim Cummins, Harold Troper); "Defining Language Policy in a Nationalistic Milieu and in a Complex Industrialized Region: the Quebec Case" (Jean-Denis Gendron); "The Impact of Minority on Language Policy and the Impact of Language Policy on Minority in Quebec" (Don Cartwright); "Facts and Fancies in Language Education of Ethnocultural Minorities" (Bruce Bain); "Language Education for Northern Canadian Native Students: A Case Study of Fort Albany, Ontario" (Kelleen Toohey); and "Multiculturalism as De-acculturation" (Claudia Persi-Haines, Ian Pringle).

ED317055
French Language Minority Education: Political and Pedagogical Issues.
Tardif, Claudette
Publication Date: March 1989
Available from: EDRS Price MF01/PC02 Plus Postage.
The political and pedagogical issues arising from language legislation, language policy, and language planning in a bilingual country such as Canada are analyzed. The socio-historical context of bilingualism in Canada is reviewed, and Section 23 of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms (appended), which imposes a constitutional requirement on each provincial legislature to provide instruction in the official minority language (French or English), is examined and interpreted. An analysis of the pedagogical issues includes consideration of the sociocultural factors determining the different success of minority and majority bilingual situations and the educational implications of native language maintenance in minority language groups. Finally, some implications arising from the pedagogical and political issues that relate to official minority language education are outlined. A list of over 60 references is included.

ED376703
Papers from the Round Table on Language Policy in Europe, April 22, 1994.
Phillipson, Robert, Ed.; Skutnabb-Kangas, Tove, Ed.
Publication Date: August 1994
ISSN: 0106-0821
Available from: EDRS Price MF01/PC03 Plus Postage.
Availability: ROLIG, hus 03.2.4, Roskilde University Center, P.O. Box 260, DK-4000, Roskilde, Denmark (free).
This collection of seven papers addresses language policy in Europe, focusing on the role of national and supranational language policy on European integration. The papers include: (1) "Language Policy for the 21st Century: Lessons from History" (Gyorgy Szepe); (2) "Lessons for Eastern Europe from Language Policy in Africa" (Josef Schmied); (3) "The Spread of Dominant Languages (English, French, and German) in Multilingual Europe" (Robert Phillipson); (4) "Dominant International Languages' in Europe" (Claude Truchot); (5) "Language Policy in the Baltic States" (Mart Rannut); (6) "Educational Challenges in Multilingual Central Europe" (Zsofia Radnai); and (7) "Educational Challenges in Multilingual Western Europe" (Tove Skutnabb-Kangas). Two appendixes contain the program for the EUROLING Round Table, questions related to European language policy, and an extract from the EUROLING project description on project goals. (Contains 52 references.)

ED388092
Papers in European Language Policy. ROLIG-papir 53.
Phillipson, Robert; Skutnabb-Kangas, Tove
Publication Date: September 1995
ISSN: 0106-0821
Available from: EDRS Price MF01/PC05 Plus Postage.
Availability: ROLIG, hus 03.2.4, Roskilde University Center, P.O. Box 260, DK-4000 Roskilde, Denmark (free); e-mail: rolig@babel.ruc.dk.
A collection of essays on European language policy, each by one or both of the authors, are: "Lessons for Europe from Language Policy in Australia"; "English Only Worldwide, or Language Ecology"; "Minority Workers or Minority Human Beings? A European Dilemma"; "Educational Language Choice--Multilingual Diversity or Monolingual Reductionism?"; "Linguicide and Linguicism"; "A Historical Outline of British Policy for the Spread of English"; "Is India Throwing Away Its Language Resources?"; reviews of two publications on language policy; reviews of Normand Labrie's "La construction linguistique de la Communaute europeenne" and Christina Bratt Paulston's "Linguistic Minorities in Multilingual Settings"; and "Language Policy," a proposed 5-year policy plan for Denmark, written in Danish. Each of the papers was written as part of a project on language policy in contemporary Europe, supported by the Danish Research Council for the Humanities. Some are papers presented at conferences worldwide, and others were written for publication.

ED421016
Language Revitalization Processes and Prospects: Quichua in the Ecuadorian Andes.
King, Kendall A.
Publication Date: April 1998
Available from: EDRS Price MF01/PC02 Plus Postage.
This paper examines efforts to reverse language shift in two indigenous communities in southern Ecuador. The ongoing decline and rapid pace of extinction of many of the world's languages have received increasing amounts of attention, but while processes of language loss and extinction have been extensively studied, relatively little work of similar scope and detail has addressed the processes and prospects for language revitalization. Findings are presented from ethnographic work investigating language use, language attitudes, and language instruction in two Andean communities that are attempting to revitalize their once native Quechua. Results indicate that for different reasons, in neither community is Quechua transmission occurring successfully, and reveal how and why communities that are socially, economically, and culturally secure are most likely to be supportive of and participate in language revitalization efforts.

ED429440
Official Languages in Canada: Changing the Language Landscape. New Canadian Perspectives = Les langues officielles au Canada: transformer le paysage linguistique. Nouvelles Perspectives Canadiennes.
Churchill, Stacy
Publication Date: 1998
ISBN: 0-662-63501-9
ISSN: 1203-8903
Available from: EDRS Price MF01/PC08 Plus Postage.
Availability: Official Languages Support Programs, Department of Canadian Heritage, 15 Eddy, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada K1A-OM5 (Cat. no. CH3-2-7/1998); Tel: 819-994-2224; Web site: http://www.pch.gc.ca/offlangoff/perspectives/index.htm.
This book offers an overview of the events surrounding the development of the two official language communities (English and French) of Canada during the last 30 years and the establishment of a model of official bilingualism. The text is provided in both languages. Chapter 1 describes the context of language change: historical origins of populations speaking English and French; the current distribution of official language groups across the country, and the context for policy making in a bilingual country. Chapter 2 outlines the objectives pursued by federal and provincial governments for official languages, and the long-term action of the federal government to improve the status and use of official languages in federal institutions, to support the development of official language minority communities, and to promote English and French throughout Canadian society. Chapter 3 reviews the major shifts in provincial policies and programs for official language minorities. The final chapter presents the results of three decades of sustained effort to give English and French equal status in Canadian society, outlining provincial achievements, minority community development, and growing public support for the official languages and policies to promote them. Contains 47 references.

ED436097
The Languages of Israel: Policy, Ideology and Practice. Bilingual Education and Bilingualism 17.
Spolsky, Bernard; Shohamy, Elana
ISBN: 1-85359-451-2
Availability: UTP Distribution, 2250 Military Rd., Tonawanda, NY 14150 (paperback: ISBN-1-85359-451-2, $39.95; hardback: ISBN-1-85359-452-0, $79). Tel: 800-565-9523 (Toll Free).
This book focuses on the practice and ideology of the languages of Israel, examining the extent to which the present linguistic pattern may be attributed to explicit language-planning activities. The chapters give balanced analyses of the history and current status of the revitalized national language, Hebrew; of the other official language, Arabic; of the all-pervasive international language, English; of the large number of immigrant languages; and of the fate of many Jewish languages. It considers the major impact on the country's multilingualism of the nearly one million Russian speakers. This is all tied together with an account of the new language education policy, noting the likelihood that the long hegemony of Hebrew is giving way to an evolving acceptance of linguistic diversity. The chapters are: (1) "Language Practice and Policy in Israel"; (2) "Language Policy"; (3) "Hebrew as a Mother Tongue"; (4) "Hebrew Language Acquisition and Diffusion Policies"; (5) "Arabic: The Language of the 'Minorities'"; (6) "Teaching Arabic as a Second Language"; (7) "English: Everybody's Second Language"; (8) "The Other Languages of the Immigrants"; (9) "The Loss and Maintenance of Jewish Languages"; (10) "Languages of Recent Immigrants"; and (11) "Change or Continuity?" (Contains approximately 400 references.)

EJ305485
Irish: Planning and Preservation.
Edwards, John
Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, v5 n3-4 p267-75 Jun 1984
Discusses the history of the decline of the use of Irish in Ireland since the 12th century and how present government policies and citizen attitudes have affected this decline. Government actions include establishing a Gaelic Board, setting nominal Irish qualifications for civil servants, and teaching Irish in the primary schools.

EJ409654
Belize and Sri Lanka: Language Planning in Multilingual States.
Hanson-Smith, Elizabeth
Educational Research Quarterly, spec iss v12 n4 p23-31 1990
The means by which Sri Lanka and Belize--two former British colonies differing greatly in economic development and resources--implement a language planning policy are discussed. Attention is given to educational systems, materials development, teacher training, and student attitudes toward English--four major issues in language planning currently conducted in California.

EJ415131
Changing Language Policies and Attitudes in Autonomous Catalonia.
Woolard, Kathryn A.; Gahng, Tae-Joong
Language in Society, v19 n3 p311-30 Sep 1990
ISSN: 0047-4045
Discusses language status planning in Spain's attempt to enhance the use of Catalan. The study reveals that three aspects of public language policy have attenuated ethnic constraints against nonnative use of Catalan and that further changes in social relations may be necessary to alter patterns of language choice. Contains 34 references.

EJ423147
Toward the Development of a Multilingual Language Policy in Nigeria.
Akinnaso, F. Niyi
Applied Linguistics, v12 n1 p29-61 Mar 1991
ISSN: 0142-6001
Examines Nigeria's language policies in terms of (1) the historical, sociolinguistic, political, educational, and ideological contexts in which they arose; (2) their impact on patterns of language choice and use in education and other aspects of life; and (3) their implications for the theory and practice of language planning. (51 references)

EJ424629
Success as a Source of Conflict in Language-Planning: The Tanzanian Case.
Russell, Joan
Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, v11 n5 p363-75 1990
ISSN: 0143-4632
The role of Tanzania's first President in promoting Swahili is outlined, and language policy is seen as one of the inevitable components of crises management. The recent reversal of an early policy of eventual Swahili-medium secondary and higher education is noted. (42 references)

EJ430022
Language, Geography and Politics: The "Territorial Imperative" Debate in the European Context.
Mar-Molinero, Clare; Stevenson, Patrick
Language Problems and Language Planning, v15 n2 p162-76 Sum 1991
ISSN: 0272-2690
A response to an argument that Canadian language policy prevents the self-defense of minority languages through exclusive territorial control (LaPonce, 1984) addresses the relative neglect of research concerning language and territoriality in the European context and contrasts the contemporary multilingual situations in Spain and Switzerland to illustrate the need for further study. (23 references)

EJ481610
Language Policy and Planning in Western European Countries.
Beardsmore, Hugo Baetens
Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, v14 p93-110 1993-94
ISSN: 0267-1905
A discussion of language policy formation and planning in Western European countries covers the following: implications of the 1992 Treaty of Maastricht, European Community initiatives, language planning at the regional level, the European Science Foundation, bilingual education, and the Council of Europe. (Contains 47 references.)

EJ481612
Language Policy and Planning in Canada.
Edwards, John
Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, v14 p126-36 1993-94
ISSN: 0267-1905
A discussion of language policy formation and planning in Canada covers the following: bilingualism and multiculturalism; Quebec, French, and the constitution; and aboriginal language issues. Language legislation is emphasized. (Contains 52 references.)

EJ481613
Language Policy and Planning in Australia.
Eggington, William
Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, v14 p137-55 1993-94
ISSN: 0267-1905
A discussion of language policy formation and planning in Australia covers the following: the development of the national policy on languages, and the Australian Language and Literacy Policy and its four goals related to English language and literacy, languages other than English, aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander languages, and language/literacy services. (Contains 73 references.)

EJ481615
Language Policy and Planning in Hong Kong.
Johnson, Robert Keith
Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, v14 p177-99 1993-94
ISSN: 0267-1905
A discussion of language policy formation and planning in Hong Kong covers the following: language use, change, and shift (including Chinese dialects, written Chinese, Mandarin, and English); the legal system; educational developments. Reasons for the lack of language planning are noted. (Contains 111 references.)

EJ481617
Language Policy and Planning in South America.
Hornberger, Nancy H.
Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, v14 p220-39 1993-94
ISSN: 0267-1905
A discussion of language policy formation and planning in South America focuses on the highland indigenous sectors and covers the following: colonial languages; immigrant languages; and indigenous languages, including planning, acquisition planning, and corpus planning. (Contains 83 references.)

EJ481619
Language Policy and Planning in South Africa.
Webb, Vic
Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, v14 p254-73 1993-94
ISSN: 0267-1905
A discussion of language policy formation and planning in South Africa covers the following: the sociolinguistic complexity of the country, language-related national problems, language in nation building, current policy, and language planning agencies. (Contains 75 references.)

EJ535846
Language Planning and Bilingual Education in Catalonia {and} A Response.
Strubell, Miquel; Chamberlain, Alan
Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, v17 n2-4 p262-79 1996
ISSN: 0143-4632
Discusses bilingual educational policies in Catalonia, where the official aim is to reverse a language shift in favor of Catalan. Chamberlain's response focuses on the decline of Catalan under Franco, similarities between some minority languages in Europe and the language situation in Brunei, and the role of the school and the media in language planning. (32 references)

EJ541083
Language Management, Official Bilingualism, and Multiculturalism in Canada.
Carey, Stephen
Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, v17 p204-23 1997
ISSN: 0267-1905
Research on Canadian bilingualism, multiculturalism, and language policy is reviewed, including the recent history of public policy, the challenge of implementing official bilingualism/multiculturalism, assimilation and language demographics, status of non-official languages, French immersion and francophone schooling, Quebec's unilingualism and English education, minority language education for minority speakers, British Columbia's educational policy, immersion and academic achievement.

EJ544548
Linguistic Human Rights and English in Europe.
Phillipson, Robert; Skutnabb-Kangas, Tove
World Englishes, v16 n1 p27-43 Mar 1997
ISSN: 0883-2919
Looks at policies of linguistic expansion worldwide, particularly English in the colonial and post-colonial periods. Considers whether English expansion in continental Europe represents a threat or blessing. Considers ambiguities in English being promoted as a language serving international purposes and simultaneously British and American interests, and the attitudes of scientists needing to publish in English.

EJ556255
Language Policy and Identity: The Case of Catalonia.
Miller, Henry; Miller, Kate
International Studies in Sociology of Education, v6 n1 p113-28 1996
Available from: Triangle Journals Ltd, PO Box 65, Wallingford, Oxfordshire OX10 0YG, United Kingdom. World Wide Web: http://www.triangle.co.uk
ISSN: 0962-0214
Examines the dynamics of language in Catalonia and the development of Catalan educational policy. Discusses the suppression of the Catalan language under Generalissimo Francisco Franco and its reappearance after his death in 1975. Summarizes key arguments concerning the relationships among identity, nationality, education, and language.

EJ608681
Languages, Minorities and Education in Spain: The Case of Catalonia.
Ferrer, Ferran
Comparative Education, v36 n2 p187-97 May 2000
ISSN: 0305-0068
Examines Catalan's remarkable revival in Catalonia (Spain) in the past 20 years. Discusses the 1978 referendum designating "autonomous communities," their languages having co-official status with Spanish; increases in Catalan usage in many sectors and among the young; Catalan usage in education; and challenges related to bilingual education, cross-cultural issues, rights of Spanish-speaking students, and telecommunications technology.

EJ608682
Problems of Diversity in Policy and Practice: Celtic Languages in the United Kingdom.
Sutherland, Margaret B.
Comparative Education, v36 n2 p199-209 May 2000
ISSN: 0305-0068
Discusses the questionable survival of minority languages worldwide and of the Celtic languages in the United Kingdom. Examines governmental policies concerning the teaching and school use of Welsh, Scots Gaelic, and Irish Gaelic in their respective regions. Outlines some general principles to guide policies related to minority language maintenance and survival. (Contains 31 references.)

EJ609834
Accommodating and Resisting Minority Language Policy: The Case of Wales.
May, Stephen
International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, v3 n2 p108-28 2000
ISSN: 1367-0050
Explores institutional and attitudinal difficulties faced by minority language policies and discusses the potential for resolving these problems. Focuses on recent institutional developments in Welsh language policy in Wales and examines the attitudes toward such developments of a cohort of Welsh teacher trainees.

EJ609850
Hong Kong's New English Language Policy in Education.
Evans, Stephen
World Englishes, v19 n2 p185-204 Jul 2000
ISSN: 0883-2919
Examines Hong Kong's new English language policy in education. Aims to show that the problems that have confronted English language policymakers in the past two decades owe their origins to the unique historical forces that have shaped the development of education and society in Hong Kong since the mid-nineteenth century.

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