Learners with Minimal First Language Literacy

Learners with limited literacy in their first language benefit from instruction that builds on their backgrounds and immediate personal experiences, focuses on familiar topics, and uses concrete materials. A study of instructional practices with this population revealed that many activities assume too much shared cultural knowledge (Achren, 1991). For example, even simple line drawings of such things as body parts (in a health unit) may not be as transparent as teachers think for learners who do not have the same cultural frames and life experiences. Such materials may be confusing, upsetting, or offensive and create barriers to learning. Educators recommend using real objects to set an immediate and meaningful context, gradually replacing those with photos or realistic pictures and moving to more abstract diagrams or graphics (Hiffeldt, 1985; Ramm, 1994). When possible, meanings can be clarified in learners' native languages (Allender, 1998).

Incarcerated Learners

Because correctional facilities are responsible for inmates' safety as well as for providing work and education programs, security issues take precedence over access to educational programs. Students may have limited access to technology. Books and notebooks may only be available inside the classroom. Limited time is another issue, as classes can be cancelled at the discretion of the correctional facility. Movement within the facility, court dates, probation, and attorney and family visits can also restrict participation in programs. Instruction should combine basic skills (reading and writing words, letters, and sentences) with functional uses of literacy such as reading labels, letters from friends and family, magazines, and newspapers. Use of computers should be included if possible, because computer use can extend learning outside class time (Dellicarpini, 2003).

Survivors Of Trauma

Immigrants and refugees are generally affected by stress that occurs when they move from one country and culture to another. Additionally, many of these learners also are coping with stress from extreme events that occurred prior to or during their migration to the united states such as assaults, war-related injuries, and torture. It is generally believed that traumatic stress caused by the deliberate actions of other humans is the worst kind of stress to live with. Survivors of traumatic stress may have difficulty paying attention and participating in class. These learners may be absent frequently. They also may appear to be uncomfortable with ambiguity and tend to see things as "all or nothing" (Horsman, 1998, p. 2).