Grammar instruction should be integrated with reading instruction, with learners' attention directed to syntactic structures in reading texts. Teachers can point out certain grammatical structures in a passage (e.g., all of the past tense verbs), choose reading passages that highlight the grammatical structures that students are learning, and have students find and mark specific grammatical structures.

Teachers also can help build learners' knowledge of grammar and syntax by having them do the following:

• Learners complete a cloze exercise, in which specific words left out of a text with blanks that they fill in. Some exercises might focus on nouns, others on verbs or adjectives, and so on. To provide support for students, these exercises may be done initially as a whole class, then in small groups, and then individually.
• Learners identify the parts of speech of certain words in a text (nouns, verbs, adjectives, prepositions, etc.).
• Learners write their own sentences or longer texts, using specific grammatical forms (e.g., past tense verbs) and cohesion words (e.g., however, therefore).

(See Activities to Promote Reading Development for descriptions of specific activities.)

Background knowledge

Background knowledge is also related to reading comprehension in the literature on native English speakers. Readers generally understand texts more easily if they are familiar with and have information about the topics covered and the genres and text structures involved (Adams & Collins, 1985; Carrell, 1991; Goldberg, 1997; Hudson, 1982). If learners have low reading proficiency, readings about culturally familiar topics should be selected (Eskey, 1997). Even if readers are more advanced, the topics and structures of reading texts should be reviewed before learners begin reading, so that they are familiar (Goldberg, 1997).

To build on learners' background knowledge, teachers can do the following:

• Relate reading texts to ideas, concepts, and events from learners' cultures and personal experiences whenever possible.
• Use visual aids and physical objects to support understanding of unfamiliar ideas and themes.
• Preview unfamiliar ideas, actions, and settings.
• Preview titles, pictures, graphics, grammatical structures, and cohesion words used.